\R 


DAIRY   FARMING 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON    •    CHICAGO  •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON   •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 
TORONTO 


DAIRY  FARMING 


BY 


C.    H.    ECKLES,    D.Sc. 

PROFESSOR   OF   DAIRY   HUSBANDRY,    UNIVERSITY 
OF   MISSOURI 

AND 

G.    F.    WARREN,   PH.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF   FARM    MANAGEMENT,    NEW    YORK   STATE 

COLLEGE    OF   AGRICULTURE,    CORNELL 

UNIVERSITY 


gorfc 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1916 

All  rights  reserved 


s-.fa.3q 


COPYBIGHT,    1916, 

BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 
Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  November,  1916. 


Norfoooti 

J.  8.  Cushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


INTRODUCTION 

AGRICULTURE  now  has  a  recognized  place  in  both  high 
S(  nools  and  colleges.  If  this  progress  in  scientific  study  is 
t(  continue,  it  is  necessary  that  the  instruction  be  kept  on  an 
e<  ual  educational  basis  with  all  other  subjects.  The  courses 
in  agriculture  must  stand  for  good,  solid  work  such  as  is  typi- 
ci  1  of  the  entire  farming  industry.  There  is  a  need  for  text- 
b<  oks  that  give  the  basic  principles  of  the  subject  briefly 
\v  thout  being  superficial.  To  help  in  meeting  this  need  a 
series  of  books,  to  be  known  as  the  Farm  Series,  is  being 
prepared.  The  aim  of  each  book  will  be  to  discuss  the  phases 
oi  its  subject  that  are  of  most  importance  to  the  farmer ;  that 
is.  to  answer  the  farmer's  questions,  and  to  make  these 
answers  in  the  form  of  underlying  principles  rather  than  as 
rules.  The  positive  advice  or  rules  that  may  work  in  one 
region  may  be  absolutely  wrong  in  another  region,  or  at  an- 
other time  in  the  same  region.  If  one  understands  the  prin- 
ciples involved,  he  will  be  better  able  to  change  his  practice 
to  meet  the  ever-changing  conditions.  Statements  are  often 
made  that  a  farmer  should  raise  all  his  cows,  that  he  should 
produce  winter  milk,  that  he  should  build  a  silo.  Such  rules 
have  no  educational  value  and  usually  have  no  practical  value. 
The  real  problem  depends  on  the  factors  involved  in  each  case. 
For  instance  a  few  of  the  points  that  must  be  considered  in 
deciding  whether  or  not  to  build  a  silo  are  the  adaptation  of 

acj'jf  72 


vi  INTRODUCTION 

the  farm  to  corn  production,  the  price  of  hay,  the  size  of  the 
herd,  the  price  of  milk,  whether  winter  or  summer  dairying 
is  followed,  the  amount  of  money  available.  No  rule  can  be 
made  that  will  include  all  these  points,  for  many  of  them  may 
be  changed  next  year. 

It  is  fitting  that  the  first  book  of  the  series  should  deal  with 
what  is  probably  the  most  important  source  of  income  of 
American  farmers,  —  dairy  farming. 

As  population  increases  we  must  of  necessity  depend  more 
on  dairy  products  and  less  on  beef  cattle.  The  best  methods 
of  producing  beef  are  very  different  from  the  best  methods  of 
producing  milk.  Many  farmers  who  once  kept  beef  cattle  are 
changing  to  dairying.  For  such  farmers  a  study  of  dairying 
is  of  particular  importance  because  it  will  bring  to  them  in- 
formation that  has  been  worked  out  by  long  experience  in 
dairy  regions.  Even  in  the  old  established  dairy  regions  the 
changes  in  prices  of  land,  feed,  labor,  and  dairy  products  and 
the  increasing  importance  of  manure  for  growing  cash  crops, 
make  a  study  of  the  principles  of  dairy  farming  of  prime 
importance. 

The  success  of  the  teacher  will  depend  in  large  measure  on 
the  extent  to  which  the  conditions  in  the  community  are 
studied.  Many  suggestive  questions  are  given  after  each 
chapter.  Much  time  should  be  spent  in  finding  answers  to 
these.  A  number  of  laboratory  exercises  should  be  given  on 
farms  in  the  region.  One  should  not  too  lightly  condemn  the 
practices  of  the  farmers,  but  should  rather  try  to  learn  what 
are  the  natural  and  economic  conditions  that  led  to  the  present 
practices.  Many  farmers  in  the  community  are  in  all  proba- 
bility farming  in  a  manner  that  is  best  for  present  conditions, 
but  that  may  not  be  best  a  few  years  from  now  when  condi- 
tions change. 

This  book  is  adapted  for  use  in  schools  and  colleges  that 


INTRODUCTION  Vll 

wish  to  devote  some  time  to  the  study  of  dairy  farming. 
Three  to  five  recitations  per  week  and  two  laboratory  periods 
per  week  will  usually  be  desirable.  At  least  a  part  of  the 
laboratory  exercises,  and  preferably  all  of  them,  should  be 
given  in  periods  that  are  two  hours  long.  If  this  much  time 
ca'inot  be  allowed,  the  laboratory  period  may  be  placed  at  the 
en  1  of  the  day  so  that  when  farms  are  visited,  it  will  be  pos- 
sible to  take  the  longer  time  that  is  necessary. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  book  will  also  prove  useful  to  farmers 
WIG  wish  a  better  understanding  of  the  principles  involved 
in  the  successful  operation  of  a  dairy  farm. 

G.    F.    WARREN. 
[THACA,  N.Y., 

April  1,  1916. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   1 

PAGES 

IMPORTANCE  or  THE  DAIRY  INDUSTRY 1-11 

Milk  a  universal  food,  1  —  Value  of  milk  as  food,  1  — 
Butter  and  cheese  as  food,  2 —  One  dairy  cow  per  family,  3 

—  Amounts  of  dairy  products  used,  4 —  Milk  inspection,  5 

—  Dairy  cattle  as  a  source  of  meat,  5  —  Dairy  cattle  in  other 
countries,  6  —  The  dairy  cow  an  efficient  machine,  7  —  Cows 
effective  users  of  by-products,  7  —  Dairying  and  main- 
tenance of  soil  fertility,  9  —  Cows  help  to  provide  a  full 
year's  work,  9  —  Receipts  from  dairy  products,  10. 

Questions  and  problems 10 

Collateral  reading 11 


CHAPTER  2 

B  SEEDS  OF  CATTLE 12-39 

Origin  of  Breeds :  Origin  of  domesticated  cattle,  12  — 
Origin  of  breeds,  12  — Definition  of  terms,  13  —  Classifica- 
tion of  cattle,  14  —  Value  of  breeds,  14  —  Pedigrees,  15. 

Dairy  Breeds:  Number  of  animals  registered,  16  —  Hol- 
stein-Friesian,  17 — Jersey,  21  —  Guernsey,  24  —  Ayrshire, 
27  — Brown  Swiss,  30  — Dutch  Belted,  30  — Kerry,  30. 

Dual  Purpose  :  Dual  Purpose,  31  —  Shorthorn,  32  — 
Polled  Durham,  34  — Red  Polled,  34  — Devon,  36. 

Beef  Breeds:  Hereford,  37  —  Aberdeen-Angus,  37  — 
Galloway,  38. 

Questions  and  problems    ....... 

Laboratory  exercises          .......  39 

Collateral  reading      ........  39 

ix 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  3 

SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  . 

Selection  of  a  Breed:  Selection  of  a  breed,  40. 

Individual  Selection  :  Selection  of  individual  cows,  42  — 
Extent  of  variation  of  individuals,  44  —  High-producing 
cows  more  economical  producers,  46. 

Selection  by  Type  :  How  individual  selection  is  made,  47 

—  The  dairy  type,  47  —  The  udder,  50  —  The   milk  veins 
and  milk  wells,  51  —The  barrel,  52  — The  score  card,  53. 

Selection  by  Performance  Eecords  :  Selection  by  records, 
56  —  Overrating  the  importance  of  rich  milk,  56  —  Complete 
milk  records,  68  —  Taking  samples  for  testing,  59  —  Aver- 
aging tests,  61  —  Permanent  records,  61  —  Cow  testing  asso- 
ciations, 61  —  Advanced  registry,  64  —  Relation  of  age  of 
cow  to  yield  and  richness  of  milk,  66. 

Selection  of  a  Bull :  Selection  of  the  bull,  69  —  Differ- 
ence in  transmission  of  dairy  qualities  by  different  bulls,  71 

—  Methods  of  selecting  a  bull,  73  —  Cross  breeding,  74. 

Questions  and  problems 

Laboratory  exercises 

Collateral  reading 


PAGES 
40-78 


75 

78 
78 


CHAPTER  4 

MANAGEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE        .....         .         79-93 

Decline  of  milk  production  in  summer,  79  —  Protection 
from    flies,    79  —  Dehorning,    81  —  Marking    calves,   82  — 
Shelter,  82  —  Milking  the  heifer,  83  —  Methods  of  milking, 
84  —  Hard-milking  cows,  85 — Effect  of  interval  between 
milkings,   86  —  Milking    machines,   86  —  Cow  with    leaky 
teats,  87  —  Bloody  milk,  87  —  Chapped  teats,  88  —  Warts 
on  teats,  88— Bitter  milk,  88  — Kicking  cows,  88— Self- 
sucking  cows,  89  —  How  long  should  a  cow  be  dry  ?  89  — 
Drying  up  a  cow,  89 — Milking  the  cow  before  calving,  90 
—  Care  of  cow  after  calving,  90  —  Management  of  young 
stock,  91  —  Care  and  management  of  the  bull,  91. 

Questions  and  problems    .......  93 

Laboratory  exercises          .......  93 

Collateral  reading      ........  93 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  5 

FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE .94-138 

Composition  of  feeds  and  feeding  stuffs :  The  uses  of 
feed,  94  —  Chemical  analysis  of  feeds,  94  —  Water,  95  — 
Ash,  95— Protein,  95  — Crude  fiber,  95  —  Nitrogen-free 
extract,  95  — Fat,  or  ether  extract,  95  —  Digestibility,  96  — 
Production  values,  96  —  Feeding  standards,  97  —  Calculat- 
ing a  ration,  100  —  The  cost  of  the  ration,  105. 

Discussion  of  common  feed  stuffs:  Timothy  hay,  106  — 
Corn  stover,  106  — Hay  from  legumes,  106  —  Silage,  107  — 
Corn,  107  —  Wheat  bran,  107  —  Oats  and  oat  products,  108 

—  Cottonseed  meal,  108  —  Linseed  meal,  109  —  Gluten  feed, 
109  —  Beet  pulp  and  molasses,  109 — Brewers'  grains,  109 

—  Mixed  feeds,  110  — Condimental  stock  foods,  111. 
Feeding  young  stock  and  dry  cows:  Calf  raising,  112  — 

Raising  the  calf  on  skim-milk,  113 — Raising  calves  when 
whole  milk  is  sold,  116 — The  use  of  milk  substitutes,  117 

—  Feeding  for  veal,  119  — Feeding  the  dairy  heifer,  120  — 
Salt  requirements,  123  —  Feeding  the  cow  when  dry,  124. 

Feeding  the  cow  in  milk :  Water  for  cows,  125  —  Turn- 
ing on  pasture,  126  —  Feeding  grain  while  on  pasture,  127  — 
Providing  for  periods  of  short  pasture,  128 — Amount  to 
feed,  129  — The  balanced  ration,  131  —  Succulent  feed,  132 

—  Palatability  of  the  ration,  132— Order  of  feeding,  133. 
Feeding  cows  for  the  maximum  production  in  official  tests : 

Obtaining  the  maximum  production,  133. 

Questions  and  problems 135 

Laboratory  exercises  ,    .         .         .         .         .         .  137 

Collateral  reading 138 

CHAPTER  6 

THE  DAIRY  BARN 139-149 

General   arrangement  of  barns,   140  —  Lighting,   140  — 
The  floor,  141— The  platform,   142  — The   gutter,   144  — 
The  stalls,  144  — Mangers,  144  — Ties,  145  —  Ventilation, 
146  —Cost  of  dairy  barns,  147. 
Questions  and  problems    .......  148 

Laboratory  exercises          .......  148 

Collateral  reading 149 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  7 

PAGES 

COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 150-167 

Normal  conditions :  The  pulse,  150  —  Temperature,  151 
— Respiration,  151 — Excretions,  151. 

Instruments  and  medicines :  Instruments  and  medicines, 
151  — Drenching  a  cow,  152. 

Common  ailments:  Milk  fever,  153  —  Abortion,  155  — 
Tuberculosis,  156  —  Inflammation  of  the  udder,  158  — 
Scours  in  calves,  160  — Lice,  161— Bloat,  162  — Cowpox, 
162  — Blackleg,  163— Sorghum  and  kafir  poisoning,  164  — 
Corn-stalk  disease,  165. 

Questions  and  problems 166 

Laboratory  exercises 166 

Collateral  reading 167 


CHAPTER  8 

MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS    ........     168-201 

Composition  of  milk:  Average  composition,  168  — 
Water,  168  — Fat,  169  — Protein,  170  — Sugar,  170  — Min- 
eral matter  or  ash,  171  —  Color  of  milk,  171. 

Factors  affecting  composition :  Kind  of  animal,  172  — 
Breed,  173  — Stage  of  lactation,  174  —  Individuality  of  the 
animal,  175 — Interval  between  milkings,  175 — Fore  milk 
and  strippings,  176 —  Effect  of  feed,  176. 
Market  milk:  Sanitary  milk,  177  — Certified  milk,  181. 
Butter  making  on  the  farm  :  Butter  making  on  the  farm, 
182—  Facilities  needed,  183  — What  is  good  butter  ?  183  — 
Flavor,  184  —  Body,  color,  arid  salt,  184 — Separation  of 
cream,  185 — Ripening  of  cream,  186  —  Temperature  for 
churning,  187  —  Churns  and  churning,  188  —  Salting  and 
working,  189  — Package,  190. 

Factory  products:  Creameries,  191  —  Cheese  making, 
192  _  Condensed  milk,  193  —  Milk  flour,  194. 

Questions  and  problems 194 

Laboratory  exercises 195 

Collateral  reading 200 


CONTENTS 


Xlll 


CHAPTER  9 

CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  DAIRYING 

Cattle  and  grass,  202  —  Topography  and  climate,  203  — 
!  jocation  of  beef  and  dairy  cattle,  204  —  Relation  of  trans- 
portation to  dairying,  208  —  Other  adjustments  due  to 
ransportation,  213  —  Marginal  regions,  214  —  Effect  of  dis- 
ance  to  railroad,  214 — Soil  arid  climate  as  determining  the 
and  of  product,  215 —  Kind  of  product  and  season  of  pro- 
luction,  215  —  Animal  unit  defined,'218. 

Questions  and  problems     ....... 

Collateral  reading     ....          .... 

CHAPTER   10 

SYS-I  EMS  OF  FARMING  ON  DAIRY  FARMS    ..... 

Crops  for  feed:  Corn  silage,  221  —  Soiling  crops,  223  — 
iloots,  223  —  Legumes,  224  —  Pasture,  224  —  Home-grown 
irain,  225. 

Cropping  systems  for  dairy  farms :  Principles  of  a  good 
Topping  system,  225  —  Examples  of  rotations,  226. 

Cash  crops  and  feed  raised :  Feed  and  cash  crops,  227  — 
\.ll  feed  purchased,  228  —  Nothing  but  roughage  raised,  228 

—  Roughage  and  grain  raised,  229  —  Roughage  and  cash 
'•rops  raised,  229. 

Management  of  manure  :  Amount  of  manure  produced, 
:!3Q  —  Fertility  of  feed  returned  by  cows,  231  —  Losses  of 
manure  and  their  prevention,  232  —  Value  of  manure,  234 

—  Value  of  manure  depends  on  the  rate  of  application,  235 
-Value  of  manure  depends  on  the  crop  on  which  it  is 

applied,  238. 

Questions  and  problems    ....... 

Laboratory  exercises 


PAGES 

202-220 


219 

220 


221-239 


238 
239 


CHAPTER   11 

METHODS  OF  RENTING  DAIRY  FARMS         .....     240-245 

Cash  rent,  2*40  —  Share  of  crops,  240  —  Share  of  receipts, 
240  —  Examples  of  rented  farms,  242. 

Questions  and  problems 245 

Collateral  reading 245 


XIV 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   12 
COST  OF  PRODUCTION  AND  METHODS  OF  MARKETING 

Cost  of  production  :  Cost  of  producing  milk,  246 —  Cost 
of  raising  heifers,  250. 

Marketing  dairy  products :  Ways  of  marketing,  253  — 
Value  of  skim-milk  in  cities,  254. 

Questions  and  problems     .        .        .         .        .        . 

Collateral  reading 


CHAPTER  13 

OTHER  IMPORTANT  FACTORS  FOR  SUCCESS  IN  DAIRY  FARMING     258-288 

Ways  of  measuring  profit :  The  most  important  factors 
for  success,  258  —  Ways  of  measuring  profit,  258. 

Size  of  business:  Size  of  business,  259  —  Relation  of  size 
of  farm  to  efficiency  in  use  of  labor,  260  —  Relation  of  size 
of  farm  to  work  done,  262  —  Relation  of  size  of  farm  to 
efficiency  in  use  of  horses,  264  —  Relation  of  size  of  farm  to 
efficiency  in  use  of  machinery,  265  —  Relation  of  size  of 
farm  to  efficiency  in  use  of  capital,  265  —  Size  of  herd,  267 
—  Summary  of  size  of  dairy  farms,  268. 

Returns  per  cow  :  Reason  for  poor  returns,  269  —  Costs 
and  returns  must  both  be  considered,  271  —  Poor  producers 
promptly  sold,  271  —  Size  of  cows,  271. 

Crop  yields:  Soils  for  the  dairy  farm,  274  —  The  well- 
balanced  farm,  274. 

Diversified  and  specialized  dairy  farms :  Relation  of  cash 
crops  to  profits,  276  —  Relation  of  capital  to  amount  of  stock 
to  keep,  277  — Acres  per  animal  unit,  278  — Reasons  for 
large  profits  on  diversified  farms,  279. 

Some  successful  farms :  A  successful  dairy  and  hog  farm 
in  Iowa,  281  —  A  successful  diversified  dairy  farm  in  New 
York,  285. 

Questions  and  problems "-..'          287 

Laboratory  exercises 288 

Collateral  reading 288 


CONTENTS  XV 

PAGK8 

APPINDIX 289-306 

Addresses  of  cattle  breeders  associations,  289  —  Scale  of 
points  for  a  Jersey  cow,  290  —  Scale  of  points  for  Ayrshire 
cow,  291  —  Scale  of  points  for  Guernsey  cow,  293 — Scale 
<  >f  points  for  Holstein-Friesian  cow,  294  —  Imports  and  ex- 
ports of  dairy  products,  296  —  Legal  standards  for  dairy 
>roducts.  297  —  Average  composition  of  milk  and  its 
oroducts,  298  —  Average  weights  of  milk  and  cream,  298  — 
The  Haecker  feeding  standard,  298  —  Wing's  method  of 
Balancing  rations,  304  —  Average  weights  of  feeding-stuffs, 
S05  —  Measuring  grain,  305  —  Measuring  ear  corn,  305  — 
Measuring  straw,  306  —  Measuring  hay,  306  —  Capacity  of 
silos,  306. 


DAIRY  FARMING 

CHAPTER  1 

IMPORTANCE    OF    THE    DAIRY    INDUSTRY 
G.  F.  WARREN 

1.  Milk  a  Universal   Food.      Milk  is    the  one  universal 
food  of  mankind.     All  civilized  peoples  use  milk  from  farm 
animals.     The  more   highly   civilized   and   prosperous   the 
population,  the  greater  is  the  amount  of  milk  consumed. 
In  regions  so  far  north  that  cows  cannot  be  kept,  reindeer 
milk  is  used.     In  regions  like  India  and  the  Philippines, 
which  are  too  hot  for  our  common  cattle,  the  water  buffaloes 
are  the  dairy  animals  and  beasts  of  burden.     In  the  deserts 
the  milk  of  mares  and  camels  serves  as  food.     In  regions 
where  the  people  are  very  poor,  goats  and  sheep  are  used 
as  milk  animals.     In  parts  of  South  America  llamas  are 
so  used.     Everywhere  civilized  man  keeps  some  milk  animal. 

2.  Value  of  Milk  as  Food.      The  value  of  milk  as  food 
is  beginning  to  be  better  appreciated,  but  even  now  its 
full  value  is  not  always  realized.     Most  liquids  have  very 
little  food  value;  for  this  reason,  all  liquids  are  sometimes 
looked  upon  as  luxuries.     But  average  milk  contains  12  to 
13   per  cent   of   dry  matter.      This  dry  matter   is   readily 
digestible  and  contains  necessary  foods  in  good  proportions. 

B  1 


DAISY   FARMING 


The  edible  portion  of  an  average  beef  animal  is  only  38  per 
cent  dry  matter.     The  remaining  62  per  cent  is  water.1 

A  quart  of  milk  weighs  2.15  pounds  and  contains  two- 
thirds  as  much  energy  value,  and  nearly  half  as  much  protein 
as  a  pound  of  sirloin  steak.  It  is  particularly  rich  in  ash, 
the  bone-forming  materials  that  are  so  essential  for  all  young 
animals.  It  contains  about  twice  as  much  of  these  as  does 
beefsteak.  A  quart  of  skim-milk  has  over  one-third  of  the 
energy  value  of  a  pound  of  sirloin  steak.  It  is  richer  in 
ash  and  has  almost  half  as  much  protein  as  the  steak,  as  is 
shown  in  Table  1. 

TABLE  1.  —  COMPARISON  OF  SIRLOIN  STEAK  WITH  MILK,  BUTTER, 
AND  CHEESE  2 


WATER 

DRY 

MATTER 

PROTEIN 

ASH 

ENERGY 
VALUE 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Calories 

1  pound  sirloin  steak     .     . 

.54 

.46 

.165 

.009 

985 

1  quart  4  %  milk  .... 

1.87 

.28 

.071 

.015 

699 

1  quart  skim-milk      .     .     . 

1.95 

.20 

.073 

.015 

366 

1  pound  butter      .... 

.11 

.89 

.010 

.030 

3605 

1  pound  cheese  (full  cream) 

.34 

.66 

.259 

.038 

1950 

As  the  value  of  milk  as  food  becomes  better  known,  it 
is  more  widely  used  by  persons  of  all  ages.  If  much  that 
is  spent  for  meat  were  spent  for  milk,  we  could  be  as  well 
fed  at  less  cost.  If  much  of  the  money  that  is  spent  for 
tea,  coffee,  alcohol,  and  other  stimulants,  that  have  little 
or  no  food  value,  were  spent  for  milk,  our  health  and  our 
wealth  would  both  be  improved. 

3.  Butter  and  Cheese  as  Food.  Butter  is  often  thought 
of  as  an  expensive  food,  but  it  is  the  most  concentrated  of 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. ;  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Bulletin  (Revised)  28, 
pp.  27,  28. 

2  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Bulletin  (Revised)  28. 


IMPORTANCE    OF    THE   DAIRY  INDUSTRY 


our  ordinary  foods.  As  shown  in  Table  1,  a  pound  of 
b'ltter  will  furnish  three  and  two-thirds  times  as  much 
energy  as  a  pound  of  sirloin  steak.  Usually  it  does  not 
cost  twice  as  much  as  the  steak.  It  is  one  of  the  cheap 
animal  foods,  is  highly  concentrated  and  easy  to  digest. 
C  heese  is  a  cheap  source  of  animal  protein.  We  use  over 
four  times  as  much  butter  as  cheese,  but  the  amount  of 
ciieese  used  is  increasing. 

4.  One  Dairy  Cow  per  Family.  In  the  ten  years  1900 
to  1910  the  number  of  steers  and  bulls  in  the  United  States 
decreased  one-fifth,  but  the  number  of  dairy  cows  increased 
\vith  the  population.  In  1910  the  average  number  of 
persons  living  together  as  one  family  was  4.5.  Counting 
tne  dairy  cows  on  farms  and  those  not  on  farms,  there  was 
one  dairy  cow  for  each  4.2  persons,  or  a  little  over  one  cow 
per  family.  For  sixty  years  the  United  States  has  main- 

TABLE  2.  —  POPULATION  AND  NUMBER  OF  DAIRY  Cows  ON  FARMS 
AND  RANGES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  EXCLUSIVE  OF  OUTLYING 

POSSESSIONS  1 


YEAR 

POPULATION 

NUMBER  OF  DAIRY 
Cows 

NUMBER  OF  PERSONS 
PER  Cow 

1850 

23,191,876 

6,385,094 

3.6 

1860 

31,443,321 

8,585,735 

3.7 

1870 

38,558,371 

8,935,332 

4.3 

1880 

50,155,783 

12,443,120 

4.0 

1890 

62,947,714 

16,511,950 

3.8 

1900 

75,994,575 

17,135,633 

4.4 

1910 

91,972,266 

20,625,432 

4.5 

1  Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  V,  p.  704.  Thirteenth  Census,  Vol.  I,  pp.  24, 
1285,  and  Vol.  V,  p.  341.  In  addition  to  the  above  there  were  973,033 
dairy  cows  not  on  farms  in  1900  and  1,170,338  in  1910.  Most  of  these 
were  kept  by  families  in  villages,  Vol.  V,  p.  430.  The  census  does  not 
give  the  number  of  cows  in  cities  for  the  earlier  years. 


DAIRY  FARMING 


tained  an  average  of  a  little  more  than  one  dairy  cow  per 
family.  Because  meat  is  so  expensive  we  are  using  less  of 
it,  but  we  are  not  decreasing  the  number  of  dairy  cows. 

5.  Amounts  of  Dairy  Products  Used.  The  number  of 
dairy  cows  just  about  keeps  pace  with  population,  but  there 
have  been  changes  in  the  use  made  of  milk.  The  amount 
of  condensed  milk  produced  increased  165  per  cent  in  the 
ten  years  1899  to  1909. 1  The  amount  of  fresh  milk  used  as 
food  has  increased  rapidly.  In  New  York  City  the  amount 
consumed  per  capita  has  increased  one-third  in  twenty  years. 

TABLE  3.  —  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE  PRODUCED  AND  CONSUMED  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES,  AND  MILK  SHIPPED  TO  NEW  YORK  CITY 


YEAH 

BUTTER 

CHEESE 

MILK  AND  CREAM 
SHIPPED  TO  NEW  YORK 
CITY  ^ 

Produced 
per 
Capita  » 

Consumed 
per 
Capita  8 

Produced 
per 
Capita  * 

Consumed 
per 
Capita  » 

Milk  per 
Capita 

Condensed 
Milk  and 
Cream 

1870 

Pounds 

13.3 

Pounds 

Pounds 

4.2 

Pounds 

Quarts 

Quarts 

1880 

16.1 

4.8 

1890 

19.1 

18.9 

4.1 

2.9 

100 

2 

1900 

19.6 

19.4 

3.9 

3.6 

109 

5 

1910 

17.6 

17.5 

3.5 

3.8 

133 

7 

Approximately  288  quarts  of  milk  per  person  are  used 
per  year  in  the  farm  family.  In  cities  about  112  quarts 
per  capita5  are  consumed.  It  is  possible  that  this  differ- 
ence has  something  to  do  with  the  better  development  of 

1  Thirteenth  Census,  Vol.  X,  p.  374. 

2  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bulletin  177,  p.  7. 

3  Amount  produced  plus  imports  less  exports  as  given  in  reports  of  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr. 

4  Data  for  New  York  City  furnished  by  The  Milk  Reporter. 
6  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bulletin  177,  ;,p.  17,  18. 


IMPORTANCE    OF    THE    DAIRY   INDUSTRY  5 

children  on  farms.     But  the  amount  consumed  in  cities  is 
rapidly  increasing. 

6.  Milk  Inspection.     In  recent  years  great  interest  has 
b<>en  taken  in  improving  the  milk  supply.     Physicians  and 
boards  of  health  have  been  agitating  and  inspecting.     As 
iii  most  worthy  publicity  campaigns  many  statements  are 
niade  that  are  not  true.     The  agitation  has  brought  pressure 
f (  r  better  milk,  but  at  the  same  time  the  extreme  statements 
n  ade  have  led  many  persons  to  use  less  milk  than  they  other- 
\\  ise  would.     The  writer  believes  that  for  every  person  who 
is  injured  by  milk,  many  persons  suffer  from  the  lack  of  it. 
\Ye  need  education  for  better  care  of  milk  on  the  farm,  in 
the  city,  and  in  the  home,  but  we  also  need  education  as  to 
the  great  food  value  of  milk  so  that  more  milk  will  be  used. 
L  is  unfortunate  when  one  of  these  interferes  with  the  other. 

Dairy  inspection  has  done  much  good.  It  will  do  more 
good  when  more  wisely  performed.  In  the  past  it  has  too 
often  been  made  by  persons  who  do  not  understand  farm- 
irjg  or  farmers.  The  emphasis  is  often  placed  on  unessential 
things.  An  inexperienced  youth  with  an  arbitrary  score 
card  turned  loose  among  dairy  farmers  usually  does  more 
harm  than  good.  In  this  way  unnecessary  antagonism  is 
often  aroused.  Recent  investigations  have  shown  that  there 
is  no  relationship  between  the  score  of  a  dairy  as  shown  by 
a  score  card  and  the  quality  of  the  milk  produced.1  In  a 
la,ter  chapter  the  essentials  for  the  production  of  whole- 
some milk  are  discussed.  The  vital  points  are  that  the 
milker  and  the  cow  both  be  in  good  health  and  that  the 
milk  be  kept  cold  and  as  free  from  dirt  as  possible. 

7.  Dairy  Cattle  as  a  Source  of  Meat.     Since  there  is  one 
dairy  cow  per  family  there  is  approximately  one  veal  calf 

1  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  398. 


6  DAIRY  FARMING 

or  cow  available  for  beef  each  year  per  family.  About 
seventeen  pounds  of  dressed  veal  per  family  is  used  annually 
in  the  United  States.1  Nearly  all  of  this  is  produced  by  dairy 
cows.  From  the  comparative  number  of  dairy  cows  and 
other  cows,  it  appears  that  in  addition  to  veal  calves  almost 
half  of  the  beef  animals  slaughtered  are  produced  by  dairy 
cows.  As  population  becomes  more  dense,  we  shall  depend 
more  and  more  on  the  dairyman  for  our  meat  supply.  Beef 
from  the  beef  breeds  of  animals  will  become  too  expensive 
for  any  but  the  wealthy,  as  it  now  is  in  densely  populated 
countries.  In  the  ten  years  1900  to  1910  the  number  of 
dairy  cows  increased.  Butter  production  increased  9  per 
cent  and  cheese  production  7  per  cent.  But  the  number  of 
steers  and  bulls  decreased  one-fifth. 

8.  Dairy  Cattle  in  Other  Countries.  The  British  Isles 
have  one  dairy  cow  to  eleven  persons.  They  import  large 
quantities  of  cheese  and  butter.  France  and  the  Netherlands 
have  one  cow  to  five  persons.  Germany  has  one  cow  to  six 
persons.  Denmark  has  one  cow  to  two  persons.  It  furnishes 
large  quantities  of  butter  for  England.  Japan  and  China 
show  a  striking  contrast  with  America  and  Europe.  Their 
dense  population  makes  any  kind  of  animal  food  too  expensive 
to  be  used  freely  except  by  the  wealthy.  Instead  of  one 
cow  for  a  family,  Japan  has  one  head  of  cattle  for  thirty-seven 
persons.  The  number  of  dairy  cows  is  not  reported,  but 
this  probably  means  that  there  is  not  more  than  one  cow 
for  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  persons.2 

As  the  population  in  the  United  States  is  becoming  denser, 
we  are  unfortunately  forced  to  use  less  animal  food,  but  we 

1  Assuming  that  the  calves  slaughtered  on  farms  were  as  heavy  as  those 
killed  in  slaughter  houses. 

2  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1912,  pp.  666-668.     International  Insti- 
tute of  Agriculture,  Vol.  V,  No.  10,  p.  485. 


IMPORTANCE    OF    THE   DAIRY  INDUSTRY  1 

still  use  far  more  than  any  other  nation.  For  each  person 
we  now  produce  over  twenty-five  times  as  much  human  food 
from  animals  as  is  produced  for  each  person  in  Japan.1 

9.  The  Dairy  Cow  an  Efficient  Machine.     From  a  given 
qu;  ntity  of  feed  the  dairy  cow  produces  more  human  food 
thi'ii  does  any  other  animal.     According  to  Armsby's  stand- 
arcs,  the   amount  of  feed  required  to  grow    and  fatten  a 
12( '0-pound  steer  would,  if  fed  to  dairy  cows,  produce  about 
thi  ee  times  as  much  human  food. 

But  the  dairy  cow  must  be  raised,  and  the  growing  heifer 
is  10  more  efficient  than  the  growing  beef  animal.  Both 
industries  require  that  cows  and  bulls  be  kept.  Figures 
showing  the  returns  from  the  entire  beef  industry  are  not 
available,  but  results  of  the  entire  dairy  industry  in  one 
county,  including  the  feed  for  the  entire  dairy  herds  and 
im  luding  milk  and  meat  returned  for  human  food,  are  given 
in  Table  4,  as  well  as  the  results  from  an  entire  poultry  in- 
dustry. As  producers  of  protein,  hens  are  the  nearest  com*- 
petitors  of  dairy  cattle,  but  judged  on  an  energy  basis  hogs 
arc  second  to  cows.  Both  hens  and  hogs  consume  a  higher 
class  of  foods  so  that  when  compared  with  cows  they  are 
not  quite  so  productive  as  the  figures  would  suggest. 

10.  Cows  Effective  Users  of  By-products.     As  population 
increases,  less  and  less  grain  is  fed  to  animals  because  it  is 
all  needed  as  human  food.     In  Europe  and  other  densely 
populated  regions  cows  are  fed  less  grain  than  in  America. 
The  dairy  cow  is  the  most  efficient  machine  for  changing 
grass,   hay,   straw,    cornstalks,   and   the   by-products   from 
mills  into  human  food.     The  cow  will  make  a  larger  amount 
of  human  food  out  of  these  products  than  will  any  other 

1  Calculated  on  the  basis  of  animal  units  aside  from  horses.  See  page 
218. 


DAIRY  FARMING 


TABLE  4.  —  PROPORTION  OF  FOOD  EATEN  BY  VARIOUS  CLASSES 
OF  LIVE  STOCK  THAT  is  RETURNED  FOR  HUMAN  UsE1 


PER  CENT  OP  PRO- 
TEIN RETURNED 

PER  CENT  OP  ENERGY  RETURNED 

Of  Total 
Food 

Of  Digest- 
ible 
Protein 

Of  Total 
Food 

Of  Digest- 
ible 
Food 

Of  Produc- 
tion Value 
of  Food 

Cow2      .... 

41.0 

48.9 

Cow3      .     .     .     . 

31.4 

40.6 

Dairy  herds  4  .     . 

14.7 

22.9 

10.0 

15.1 

33.8 

Steer  5     .     .     .     . 

8.9 

17.0 

Steer  6    .     .     .     . 

6.4 

11.8 

4.7 

6.9 

14.8 

Hen  ^      .     .     .     . 

16.1 

20.9 

7.1 

8.3 

14.1 

Poultry  flock  8 

14.5 

18.6 

6.4 

7.5 

12.6 

Hog9      .     .     .     . 

10.2 

13.2 

15.1 

17.5 

29.9 

1  Values  as  human   food   from  U.   S.   Dept.   Agr.,  Bulletin   (Revised) 
28. 

2  1000-pound  cow  giving  6000  pounds  of  4  per  cent  milk  based  on  Armsby's 
feeding  standard. 

3  Similar  cow  raised  to  2  years  on  Armsby's  standard,  milked  5  years, 
then  sold  as  lean  beef. 

4  Food  eaten  by  5191  cows,  1078  heifers,  874  calves,  158  bulls,  in  Dela- 
ware County,  New  York.     Pasture  assumed  to  be  one-third  of  the  food. 
Net  product  24,  646,000  pounds  milk,  100,000  pounds  skim-milk,  260  pounds 
butter,  and  559  cows,  235  heifers,  62  bulls,  9  calves  for  beef.     Most  of 
the  calves  were  killed  and  thrown  away  at  birth. 

5  Steer  grown  to  1000  pounds  in  2  years,  then  fattened  200  pounds  in 
100  days  by  Armsby's  standard.     Meat  counted  as  fat  beef. 

6  All  food  eaten  by  a  steer  that  grew  to  1588  pounds  in  3  years,  assumed 
to  be  fat  beef.     Ontario  Agricultural  College,  Report,  1893,  p.  122. 

7  Food  and  product  of  1  hen,  average  of  1803  by  the  writer. 

8  All  feed  except  grass  for  an  average  of  1803  hens  and  60  roosters  kept 
one  year,  2713  chickens  raised.     Net  product  204,093  eggs  above  those 
used  for  incubation,  1080  fowls  and  1404  cockrels  and  pullets  sold  for  meat, 
4395  pounds,  records  kept  by  the  writer. 

9  Hogs  assumed  to  have  eaten  the  same  feed  as  1  hen  and  to  have  made  a 
gain  of  1  pound  for  5  pounds  of  grain. 


IMPORTANCE    OF    THE    DAIRY   INDUSTRY  9 

animal.  Cows  also  make  use  of  the  grasses  that  grow  on 
large  areas  of  land  that  cannot  be  profitably  tilled. 

11.  Dairying  and  Maintenance  of  Soil  Fertility.  From  most 
pars  of  the  United  States  large  quantities  of  stock  foods 
are  shipped  out  for  foreign  use.  In  many  sections  roughage 
tha  is  good  stock  food  is  still  destroyed.  The  introduction 
of  <  Dairying  helps  to  keep  a  larger  part  of  the  fertility  on  the 
farm.  Many  farmers  who  make  dairying  a  part  of  their 
farm  business  consider  the  maintenance  of  soil  fertility,  and 
the  use  of  waste  products,  to  be  as  important  as  the  direct 
profits  from  the  cows. 

]  Experiments  for  many  years  have  shown  that  it  is  pos- 
sib'e  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil  by  means  of  chemical 
fer1  ilizers,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  farmers  who  use  farm 
ma  nure  are  most  likely  to  keep  up  the  fertility. 

Cows  Help  to  Provide  a  Full  Year's  Work.  A  farm  is  pri- 
marily a  place  to  work.  The  carpenter  who  works  only 
half  the  year  is  not  likely  to  accumulate  much  property, 
nor  is  the  farmer  who  works  only  half  the  year  likely  to 
pay  for  a  farm.  A  limited  number  of  cows  on  the  farm 
give  employment  in  the  morning  and  evening  when  field 
work  cannot  be  done.  In  the  North  where  cows  are  most 
numerous,  the  days  are  so  short  during  much  of  the  year 
that  a  full  day's  work  cannot  be  done,  unless  there  are  chores 
to  do.  Cattle  also  provide  work  for  stormy  days  and  for 
cold  days  in  winter.  They  also  provide  work  that  children 
can  do  before  and  after  school. 

Farm  children  are  particularly  fortunate  in  that  they 
have  to  help  their  fathers  in  the  farm  work.  In  the  cities 
laws  are  passed  to  prevent  child  labor,  not  because  all  labor 
is  injurious  but  because  of  the  conditions  under  which  the 
work  is  done.  Farm  children  learn  much  by  working  with 


10  DAIRY  FARMING 

their  fathers.  Perhaps  the  most  important  thing  that  they 
learn  is  to  persist  in  necessary  work  even  when  they  would 
rather  not.  While  helping  with  the  chores  the  children  are 
learning  and  at  the  same  time  helping  to  increase  the  family 
income. 

12.  Receipts  from  Dairy  Products.  Corn  is  the  most 
valuable  product  of  American  farms  but  most  of  it  is  fed  on 
the  farm.  Dairy  products  are  probably  the  largest  single 
source  of  income  of  American  farmers.  The  dairy  products 
sold  from  farms  in  1909  amounted  to  nearly  $500,000,000. 
The  value  of  both  cotton  and  wheat  sold  exceeded  this .  But  if 
the  cattle  and  calves  that  are  also  a  product  of  the  dairy  were 
combined  with  the  milk,  the  receipts  from  these  sales  would 
probably  exceed  the  sales  of  any  other  product. 

QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  Get   the  local  retail   prices   of   butter,   cheese,  milk,  skim- 
milk,   and  sirloin  steak.     Make  a  table  showing  the  amount  of 
protein  and  energy  value  that  $1  will  buy  in  each  product. 

2.  Define  "  per  capita."    Define  "  dry  matter." 

3.  Find  the  amount  of  milk  and  butter  used  per  person  in  10 
to  12  families  in  your  region.     Average  these  and  compare  with 
the  averages  given  on  page  4.    Each  student  may  report  on  one 
family,  or  more  if  there  are  not  10  students  in  the  class. 

4.  From  the  census  reports  for  your  state  find  the  population 
and  the  number  of  dairy  cows  for  your  county.    How  many  per- 
sons  are   there  for   one   cow?     Compare  with   Table  2.     What 
dairy  products  are  shipped  into  your  county?     What  products 
are  shipped  out  of  the  county  ? 

5.  Repeat  question  4  for  your  state. 

6.  What  was  the  total  value  of  all  dairy  products  sold  in  your 
county  in  1909  ?    In  your  state  ?    Which  of  the  dairy  products  sold 
are  most  important? 

7.  What  was  the  value  of  dairy  products  compared  with  other 
leading  farm  products  in  your  state  ? 


IMPORTANCE    OF    THE    DAIRY  INDUSTRY  11 

8.  Why  is  more  cheese  used  in  Europe  than  in  America?     Why 
are  v,re  using  more  cheese  than  formerly  ? 

9.  Of  what  dairy  products  does  the  United  States  import  more 
than  it  exports?     Of  which  does  it  export  more  than  it  imports? 
Whi<-'.h  are  greater  in  value,  the  total  imports  or  exports?     To  what 
proc  act  is  this  due?     See  page  296.   • 

COLLATERAL    READING 

The  Production  and  Consumption  of  Dairy  Products,  U.  S. 
Dei  t.  Agr.,  Bulletin  177. 

Tde  Use  of  Milk  as  Food,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  363. 

1 1  the  lists  of  collateral  reading  no  attempt  is  made  to  give  a 
complete  list  of  books  and  bulletins.  A  few  of  the  more  important 
references  that  are  readily  available  are  given.  Bulletins  of  the 
diff<  rent  state  experiment  stations  are  not  always  available,  for  this 
reason  they  are  not  often  given  as  collateral  reading  but  are  referred 
to  in  footnotes.  At  the  beginning  of  the  course  the  experiment 
stat  ion  in  your  state  should  be  asked  for  all  available  bulletins.  If 
af  tt  r  examination  it  appears  that  certain  ones  of  the  publications 
are  likely  to  be  needed  for  special  study,  members  of  the  class  should 
sen<  I  postal  cards  requesting  them.  It  is  better  to  have  the  students 
do  1  his  writing  because  instruction  as  to  where  to  get  information  is 
a  part  of  the  course. 

Write  to  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Washington,  D.C.,  or  to  your 
congressman  for  the  census  report  on  agriculture  for  your  state. 
Also  ask  for  the  report  on  animals  and  animal  products  for  the 
United  States. 

Many  important  laboratory  exercises  are  given  after  Chapter  2, 
page  39,  and  for  following  chapters.  These  exercises  should  be 
begun  while  Chapters  1  and  2  are  being  studied.  Because  of  the 
frequent  use  that  is  made  of  the  Babcock  milk  test  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  begin  the  laboratory  work  with  Exercise  20,  page  196. 


CHAPTER  2 

BREEDS    OF   CATTLE 

C.  H.  ECKLES 
ORIGIN  OF  BREEDS 

13.  Origin  of  Domesticated  Cattle.     No  cattle  are  native 
to  America.     All  those  found   in  both   North  and   South 
America   are  descended  from  cattle  brought  from  Europe 
and  are  the  descendants  of  wild  cattle  that  formerly  lived 
in  Europe  and  Asia.     It  is  not  known  where  or  by  whom 
cattle  were  first  domesticated  as  it  occurred  in  prehistoric 
times.     It  is  generally  believed  that  there  were  two  original 
forms  of  wild  cattle,  the  one  somewhat  smaller  than  the 
Jersey,  the  other  probably  larger  than  any  cattle  that  live 
to-day  and  in  type  something  like  the  long-horned  cattle 
formerly  raised  on  the  ranges  of  South  America  and  in 
Texas. 

14.  Origin    of   Breeds.     The   differences   between   these 
two  wild  types  account  in  part  for  the  differences  between 
breeds  of  cattle,  such  for  instance  as  the  extreme  difference 
in  type  between  the  Jersey  and  the  Holstein,  or  between 
the  long-horned  cattle  found  in  Texas  and  the  Angus  or 
the  Shorthorns. 

Other  factors  in  the  formation  of  breeds  are  climate,  food, 
and  nature  of  the  surroundings.  For  example,  the  cattle  of 
Holland  as  a  result  of  living  for  generations  in  a  rich  level 

12 


BREEDS    OF    CATTLE  13 

country  have  become  adapted  to  these  conditions  and  are 
not  so  well  suited  to  rough  scanty  pastures  as  the  Brown 
Swi^s,  or  the  Ayrshires  which  have  been  produced  on  poor 
pastures.  On  the  continent  of  Europe  the  breeds  and  sub- 
bm  ds  are  almost  innumerable.  They  have  chiefly  originated 
in  the  manner  mentioned.  In  Great  Britain  alone  ten  or 
twc  ve  distinct  breeds  have  developed.  Up  to  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  these  natural  influences 
were  the  chief  factors  in  the  development  of  breeds.  About 
tha  time,  largely  as  the  result  of  the  work  of  Robert  Blake- 
well,  a  great  interest  was  aroused  in  England  in  improving 
cati  le. 

The  beginning  of  modern  breeds  may  be  traced  largely  to 
this  great  movement.  The  methods  used  were  careful  selec- 
tior ,  more  liberal  feeding,  and  good  management.  In  some 
case  s,  as  with  the  Shorthorns  and  the  Ayrshires,  crossbreeding 
and  inbreeding  were  at  first  practiced.  At  the  present 
time  most  cattle  breeders  direct  their  efforts  towards  further 
improvement  in  the  breeds  already  in  existence  and  not 
towards  the  establishment  of  new  breeds. 

15.  Definition  of  Terms.  Scrub  and  native  are  terms  used 
to  indicate  that  an  animal  does  not  carry  more  than  a  small 
amount  of  the  blood  of  an  improved  breed. 

Grade.  This  term,  generally  used  with  some  breed  name, 
as  Grade-Hoist ein,  means  that  the  animal  has  one-half  or 
usually  more  of  the  blood  of  the  improved  breed.  When 
the  proportion  of  improved  blood  is  high,  the  animal  is 
called  a  "  high  grade." 

Crossbred  indicates  that  the  animal  is  the  offspring  of  pure- 
bred parents  of  distinct  breeds. 

Pure-bred.  This  term  is  properly  applied  to  cattle  whose 
ancestors  came  from  the  native  home  of  the  breed  and  con- 


14  DAIRY  FARMING 

formed  to  the  standards  of  the  breed.  Records  must  be 
available  showing  the  breeding  of  these  animals  and  tracing 
back  in  all  lines  to  those  coming  from  the  original  home  of 
the  breed.  Pure-bred  animals  are  sometimes  called  thorough- 
bred, but  this  term  is  also  used  to  indicate  a  particular  breed 
of  horses  and  is  usually  restricted  to  that  meaning. 

Registered.  The  breeders  of  each  important  breed  of 
cattle  have  an  organization  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  records 
and  advancing  the  interests  of  the  breed.  Each  of  these 
organizations  keeps  record  books.  Any  pure-bred  animal 
that  has  the  breed  characteristics  may  be  recorded,  provided 
both  parents  are  already  on  record.  A  pure-bred  animal 
that  is  recorded  is  called  a  registered  animal. 

16.  Classification    of    Cattle.     The    breeds    common    in 
America  are  generally  classed  as  follows : 

Dairy  Breeds.  Holstein,  Ayrshire,  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Brown 
Swiss,  Dutch  Belted. 

Dual  Purpose.  Shorthorn  (Dairy  Type),  Red  Polled,  Polled 
Durham,  Devon. 

Beef.     Shorthorn,  Hereford,  Aberdeen-Angus,  Galloway. 

17.  Value  of  Breeds.     Animals  of  a  distinct  breed  that  is 
adapted  to  the  region  usually  sell  for  more  than  animals  of 
mixed  or  unimproved  breeding  even  if  the  latter  are  equally 
good  animals  individually.     The  value  of  the  pure-bred  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  possible  to  predict  with  reasonable 
certainty  what  characteristics  will  be  inherited  by  the  off- 
spring.    Among  dairy  cattle  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  ani- 
mals of  mixed  breeding  that  rank  with  pure-breds  as  pro- 
ducers of  dairy  products.     These  animals  of  mixed  breeding, 
however,  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  reproduce  themselves 
in  their  offspring.     Very  high  grades  are  more  likely  to 
produce  young    like    themselves.     Pure-breds    have  been 


BREEDS    OF    CATTLE  15 

bred  for  generations  with  certain  objects  in  view,  and  in 
time  these  characteristics  become  fixed  and  are  transmitted 
with  fair  certainty. 

The  breed  should  be  looked  upon  as  a  means  of  retaining 
the  characteristics  that  have  been  developed  by  the  efforts 
of  'he  breeders  in  the  past.  Certain  breeds  have  for  gen- 
era dons  been  selected  and  developed  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
du<  ing  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  good  beef  from  the 
least  feed.  It  is  reasonable  to  expect  an  animal  belonging 
to  one  of  these  breeds  to  excel  one  whose  ancestors  have 
never  been  selected  for  any  definite  purpose.  Other  breeds 
have  been  developed  as  dairy  breeds,  or  for  dual-purpose 
use,  and  are  the  most  efficient  animals  for  these  purposes. 

18.  Pedigrees.  A  pedigree  is  a  record  of  the  ancestry  of 
an  animal.  Its  value  lies  in  the  opportunity  it  affords  to 
study  the  characteristics  of  the  ancestors.  Breed  associa- 
tions l  have  been  organized  by  those  interested,  primarily  for 
the  purpose  of  keeping  authentic  records  of  the  ancestry  of 
pure-bred  animals.  Upon  payment  of  the  registration  fee 
an  animal  that  has  the  required  breed  characteristics  and  both 
of  whose  parents  are  recorded,  may  be  recorded  and  assigned 
a  registration  number.  By  this  means  it  is  possible  to  trace 
the;  ancestry  of  any  registered  animal  as  far  back  as  the 
ancestors  that  were  imported.  In  ordinary  use  from  three 
to  six  generations  are  recorded  on  the  pedigree  as  studied 
by  the  breeder. 

While  pedigrees  are  of  great  value  in  making  it  possible 
to  select  breeding  animals  to  better  advantage,  it  is  a  com- 
mon mistake  to  attach  too  much  importance  to  them.  An 
animal  with  a  pedigree  may  not  be  any  better  than  others 
that  are  high  grades  of  the  same  breed.  Pedigree  alone  is 

1  See  addresses  on  p.  289. 


16 


DAIRY  FARMING 


no  indication  of  the  merit  of  the  animal  as  an  individual, 
since  it  is  merely  a  record  of  parentage. 

Below  is  given  the  pedigree  of  the  Jersey  cow,  Rosette's 
Gipsy  Maid,  including  four  generations.  The  name  of  the 
sire  in  each  case  appears  at  the  top,  and  that  of  the  dam  at 
the  bottom  of  the  bracket. 


Rosette's 
Gipsy  Maid 
220623 


Eminent 

Rosette 

66050 


My  Jolly  Girl 
206038 


Rosette's  Golden 

Lad 

57498 


Financial  Queen 
155098 


Guenon's  Golden 

Lad 

62168 


Guenon's  Mag  V 
189777 


Orlando  P. 
2535  H.  C. 

Rosette's  5th  P. 
2881  H.  C. 

Reminder  P. 
2052  H.  C. 

Financial    Pride    P. 
6060  H.  C. 

Guenon  Lad  P. 
2571  H.  C. 

Loraine 
82951 

f  Guenon's  Golden 
Lad 
62168 

Maceo's  Mag  V. 
174758 


DAIRY  BREEDS 

19.  Number  of  Animals  Registered.  Some  idea  of  the 
greatly  increased  interest  in  pure-bred  cattle  is  shown  by  the 
rapid  increase  during  recent  years  in  the  number  of  animals 
registered  by  the  breed  associations.  Over  five  times  as 
many  Holsteins  were  recorded  in  the  last  ten  years  as  were 
recorded  in  the  previous  ten  years.  Three  times  as  many 
Guernseys,  twice  as  many  Ayrshires,  and  nearly  twice  as 


BREEDS    OF    CATTLE 


17 


many  Jerseys  were  recorded  as  in  the  preceding  ten  years. 
Although  the  totals  look  large  it  should  be  taken  into  ac- 
count that  the  number  of  registrations  for  each  breed  in- 
cludes all  since  the  herdbook  was  established.  Probably 
not  over  one-third  of  the  total  -registered  are  now  living. 
In  proportion  to  the  total  number  of  dairy  cattle  in  use  in 
the  United  States  the  number  registered  is  very  small,  prob- 
ably less  than  one  in  fifty.  Table  5  gives  the  number  of 
eacii  breed  registered,  also  a  comparison  of  the  numbers 
rec<  >rded  in  the  last  ten  years  and  in  the  previous  ten  years. 


TABLE  5.  —  NUMBERS  OF  ANIMALS  REGISTERED 


LAST  TEN 

BREED 

BEFORE 
1895 

1895-1904 

1905-1914 

TOTAL  UP 
TO  1915 

YEARS  COM- 
PARED WITH 
PREVIOUS  TEN 

YEARS 

Per  Cent 

Jersey     .     .     . 

143,519 

111,782 

197,300 

452,601 

176 

Hoi  stein 

56,141 

49,296 

267,374 

372,811 

542 

Guernsey    .     . 

11,029 

15,661 

52,450 

79,140 

335 

Ayrshire 

18,306 

11,051 

26,919 

56,276 

244 

20.  Holstein-Friesian.  This  well-known  breed  of  cattle 
originated  in  Holland  and  is  especially  well  developed  in 
the  province  of  Friesland.  It  is  not  native,  as  the  name 
Holstein  would  indicate,  to  the  duchy  of  Holstein,  which  is 
a  province  of  North  Germany.  Some  of  the  first  cattle  of 
this  breed  imported  to  America  were  incorrectly  called 
Holstein,  and  a  breed  association  was  organized  under  this 
name.  Later  another  was  started  called  the  Dutch-Friesian. 
These  two  were  combined  in  1885  under  the  name  Holstein- 
Friesian,  which  is  the  official  name  of  the  breed  in  this  coun- 
try. It  is  now  generally  called  Holstein  in  America, 
c 


BREEDS    OF    CATTLE  19 

This  breed  is  probably  one  of  the  oldest  among  those  in 
general  use.  Holland  has  been  famous  for  its  cattle  since 
the  time  of  the  Romans.  The  best  part  of  Holland  is  below 
th<  level  of  the  ocean,  which  is*  kept  back  by  great  dikes. 
The  land  is  level  and  very  fertile  and  especially  adapted  to 
grt  ss.  The  cattle  kept  in  Holland  are  given  the  best  care  of 
an  7  cattle  in  the  world.  Attention  is  given  to  proper  feed- 
ing, gentle  handling  of  the  animals,  and  to  good  sanitary  con- 
dil  ions.  As  a  result  Holland  exceeds  all  other  countries  in 
the  average  yield  of  milk  and  butter-fat  per  cow.  Nearly 
all  of  the  Holsteins  in  the  United  States  are  descended  from 
about  10,000  head  which  were  imported  between  1875  and 
1835.  This  breed  ranks  first  in  the  number  of  animals  now 
being  recorded. 

Holsteins  are  the  largest  of  the  dairy  breeds,  the  cows 
reaching  an  average  weight  of  1200  pounds  and  the  bulls 
1800  to  2200  pounds  as  a  rule.  The  color  is  always  black 
and  white  in  any  proportion  but  never  blended.  Cows  of 
this  breed  are  gentle  and  quiet  in  disposition.  The  breed- 
ing qualities  are  excellent,  as  is  indicated  by  the  rapid  in- 
crease in  numbers  of  recorded  animals.  The  calves  average 
95  pounds  at  birth,  the  largest  of  any  breed  except  the 
Bi-own  Swiss. 

Holsteins  produce  more  milk  on  the  average  than  any 
other  breed.  In  percentage  of  fat  they  rank  the  lowest.  The 
figures  in  Table  6  give  the  averages  of  cows  in  experiment 
station  herds.  It  is  quite  certain  that  these  cows,  on  the 
average,  do  not  produce  any  more  than  well-kept  private 
herds. 

On  a  farm  where  good  conditions  of  management  prevail, 
a  herd  should  average  at  least  8000  pounds  of  milk  per  year. 
A  high  average  would  be  10,000  pounds  per  year.  The  milk 


20 


DAIRY   FARMING 


or  butter  from  this  breed  has  considerably  less  yellow  color 
than  that  of  Jerseys,  and  in  fact  ranks  the  lowest  in  this 
respect. 

TABLE  6.  —  PRODUCTION    OF    HOLSTEIN    Cows    IN    EXPERIMENT 
STATION  HERDS. 


AVERAGE 

NUMBER  OF  Cows 
REPRESENTED 

Pounds  milk  per  year  
Per  cent  fat 

8699 
345 

83 
83 

Pounds  fat  per  year  
Per  cent  total  solids 

300 
1229 

83 
9 

The  highest  fat  records  for  a  year  made  by  this  breed  up 
to  April  1,  1916,  were : 


POUNDS  MILK 

POUNDS  FAT 

Duchess  Skylark  Ormsby  .... 
Finderne  Pride  Johanna  Rue  .     .     . 
Finderne  Holingen  Fayne 

27,762 
28,404 
24,612 

1205 
1176 
1116 

The  highest  milk  record  was  made  by  Tilly  Alcartra,  who 
produced  30,452  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year,  but  she  did  not 
give  as  much  fat  as  a  number  of  other  cows. 

In  Holland,  cattle  of  this  breed  are  used  for  beef  production 
as  well  as  for  dairy  purposes.  The  calves  are  especially 
well  adapted  for  veal  as  they  are  large  at  birth  and  gain 
rapidly  during  the  first  few  weeks.  When  dry  the  cows  fat- 
ten readily,  and  as  is  the  case  with  other  dairy  breeds  the 
gains  are  made  as  cheaply  and  rapidly  as  with  animals  of 
beef  breeds.  In  the  great  cattle  markets  the  price  is  always 
lower  for  animals  of  the  dairy  breeds  than  for  those  of  beef 
breeds.  There  is  some  basis  for  this  discrimination  in  the 


BREEDS   OF    CATTLE  21 

fact  that  the  dairy  breeds  during  fattening  deposit  larger 
quantities  of  fat  around  the  internal  organs,  and  tallow  is 
worth  but  little  as  compared  with  the  edible  meat.  The 
be  of -bred  animals  deposit  more  -of  their  fat  in  the  muscular 
tissue  giving  the  marbled  condition  so  much  prized.  How- 
ever, the  average  meat  consumer  scarcely  discriminates  be- 
t\\  een  the  beef  from  a  Holstein  and  that  from  a  beef -bred 
animal  if  both  be  of  the  same  age.  It  is  safe  to  prophesy 
that,  in  the  future,  dairy  cattle  will  supply  a  much  larger 
proportion  of  the  beef  used  in  this  country,  as  has  long  been 
the  case  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

The  strong  points  of  the  breed  are  the  high  milk  yield, 
the  marked  vigor  of  constitution  especially  of  the  calves, 
the  good  breeding  qualities,  the  quiet  disposition,  and  the 
value  for  beef  and  veal.  The  weakest  point  is  generally 
considered  to  be  the  low  percentage  of  fat,  but  owing  to  the 
large  yield  of  milk  the  total  production  of  fat  is  high. 

21.  Jersey.  The  Jersey  and  the  Guernsey  breeds  are 
often  spoken  of  as  the  Channel  Island  breeds.  They  take 
their  names  from  trie  islands  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  located 
in  the  English  Channel.  Jersey  Island  is  only  eleven  miles 
long  and  nine  wide.  The  climate  is  mild  and  even.  The 
cattle  are  pastured  by  tethering.  The  system  of  agriculture 
followed  is  very  intensive  since  the  average  rent  of  the  land 
is  about  $50  per  acre.  The  sale  of  pure-bred  Jersey  cattle 
for  export  is  an  important  source  of  income.  Since  1789 
the  laws  of  the  island  have  prohibited  the  importation  of 
cattle,  so  this  breed  has  been  kept  pure  since  that  time.  Much 
attention  is  given  to  the  type  of  the  animal  as  well  as  to  the 
butter  production.  This  has  resulted  in  the  development  of 
a  breed  of  great  symmetry  and  beauty. 

At  the  present  time  this  breed  is  used  to  a  limited  extent 


22 


DAIRY  FARMING 


in  England,  and  has  been  taken  to  all  English  speaking  coun- 
tries, although  by  far  the  greatest  number  is  now  in  North 
America.  Some  were  brought  to  the  United  States  about 
1850.  From  1868  to  1890  large  numbers  were  imported, 
and  again  since  1900  several  importations  have  been  made 


FIG.  2.  —  Imported  Jersey  cow,  Lady  Viola,  many  times  champion  in  the 
show  ring.  A  good  representative  of  the  Island  type  ;  rather  small,  extreme 
dairy  type,  udder  almost  perfect,  long  level  rump,  very  symmetrical  outline. 

each  year.     This  breed  is  most  numerous  in  the  Eastern  and 
Southern  States. 

The  color  may  be  any  shade  of  yellow  except  orange  —  and 
ranges  from  light  fawn  to  dark  gray  or  black.  The  most 
common  color  is  fawn  shading  to  dark  on  the  lower  parts  of 
the  body.  The  tongue,  and  the  switch  of  the  tail  are  black  in 
the  majority  of  cases.  White  spots  are  not  uncommon, 
especially  on  the  lower  part  of  the  body.  These  were  at 
one  time  strongly  objected  to,  but  now  receive  little  atten- 


BREEDS    OF    CATTLE  23 

HOD.  The  color  bears  no  relation  to  the  value  of  any  par- 
ticular cow  as  a  dairy  animal.  Mature  Jersey  cows  usually 
weit$h  from  750  to  900  pounds.  Those  found  on  Jersey 
Island  and  those  recently  imported  are  of  smaller  and  more 
refined  type  and  are  known  as  the  Island  type  in  contrast 
to  the  larger,  coarser  type  descended  from  the  early  im- 
portations, known  as  the  American  type. 

Cows  of  this  breed  are  more  sensitive  than  many  others 
on  account  of  a  highly  developed  nervous  temperament. 
When  handled  gently  they  become  very  docile,  when  care- 
les>ly  handled  or  abused  they  are  quite  the  reverse.  They 
seem  to  thrive  better  than  some  other  breeds  in  warm  cli- 
ma  tes.  As  meat  producers  they  rank  very  low.  The  calves 
art  small  at  birth,  weighing  55  pounds  on  the  average  and 
th(  y  do  not  gain  rapidly  for  the  first  few  weeks.  For  these 
reasons  they  are  not  well  adapted  for  veal. 

The  published  records  of  Jersey  cows  owned  by  the 
American  experiment  stations  are  given  in  Table  7.  On  a 
farm  where  fairly  good  conditions  are  maintained  a  Jersey 
herd  should  be  expected  to  average  about  5500  pounds 
of  milk  per  year  containing  on  the  average  5  per  cent 
of  fat.  A  high  average  milk  yield  would  be  7000  pounds 
per  cow. 

TABLE  7.  —  PRODUCTION  OF  JERSEY  Cows  IN  HERDS  BELONGING 
TO  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 


AVERAGE 

NUMBER  OF  Cows 
REPRESENTED 

Pounds  milk  per  year     
Per  cent  fat       
Pounds  fat  per  year        
Per  cent  total  solids 

5508 

5.14 
283 
14.9 

153 
154 
153 
29 

24  DAIRY  FARMING 

The  highest  records  for  a  year  up  to  April  1,  1916,  were : 


POUNDS  MILK 

POUNDS  FAT 

Sophie  19th  of  Hood  Farm  .  .  . 
Spermfield  Owl's  Eva  

17,558 
16,457 

999 
993 

Eminent's  Bess  

18,783 

963 

In  quantity  of  milk  the  Jersey  is  surpassed  by  other 
dairy  breeds.  In  use  of  food  for  the  economical  production 
of  fat  the  Jersey  and  her  close  relative  the  Guernsey  are  un- 
surpassed. The  best-known  characteristics  of  this  breed  are 
the  high  percentage  of  fat  and  the  yellow  color  of  the  prod- 
uct. The  yellow  color  adds  nothing  to  the  flavor  or  the 
food  value  of  milk  or  cream  but  makes  the  article  more 
attractive  to  the  consumer.  The  Jersey  cow  is  also  an  un- 
usually persistent  milker  which  contributes  to  her  popularity 
as  a  family  cow.  This  breed  is  best  adapted  for  the  produc- 
tion of  cream  or  butter.  The  weakest  points  are  a  lack  of 
vitality  in  the  calves  and  lack  of  good  breeding  qualities  in 
the  cow. 

22.  Guernsey.  This  breed  is  a  native  of  the  island  of 
the  same  name,  which  is  the  second  in  size  of  the  Channel 
Islands.  The  ancestors  of  this  breed  and  of  the  Jersey  were 
undoubtedly  the -same,  and  in  fact  a  century  ago  the  two 
breeds  were  essentially  alike.  The  conditions  under  which 
the  two  breeds  developed  are  almost  identical,  but  type 
has  been  emphasized  far  less  than  on  Jersey  Island.  As  a 
result  the  Guernseys  lack  the  symmetry  and  uniformity  of 
type  characteristic  of  the  Jersey.  The  Guernsey  cow 
weighs  about  1000  pounds  on  the  average,  or  at  least  100 
pounds  more  than  the  Jersey,  and  is  also  coarser  boned.  In 


BREEDS    OF    CATTLE 


25 


26 


DAIRY   FARMING 


general  the  colors  resemble  those  of  the  Jersey,  but  include 
some  colors  not  found  in  that  breed.  The  common  colors 
are  reddish  yellow,  or  lemon,  or  orange-fawn,  with  white 
markings.  Guernseys  are  probably  a  little  slower  maturing 
than  Jerseys,  but  are  ready  to  freshen  when  about  24  months 
old.  Like  the  Jerseys  they  have  little  adaptation  for  beef. 

TABLE  8.  —  PRODUCTION    OF    GUERNSEY   Cows   IN    EXPERIMENT 
STATION  HERDS 


AVERAGE 

NUMBER  OF  Cows 
REPRESENTED 

Pounds  milk  per  year  
Per  cent  fat 

5509 
498 

17 
21 

Pounds  fat  per  year  
Per  cent  total  solids  

274 
14.2 

17 
6 

Records  for  cows  belonging  to  experiment  stations  are 
given  in  Table  8.  A  herd  should  average  at  least  5500  pounds 
of  milk  per  year  containing  5  per  cent  of  fat.  A  high  aver- 
age would  be  7000  pounds  per  cow. 

The  highest  records  for  one  year  up  to  April  1,  1916,  were  : 


POUNDS  MILK 

POUNDS  FAT 

IVIurne  Cowan                           ... 

24,008 

1098 

IVtay  Rilma                                     • 

19,673 

1073 

Spotswood  Daisy  Pearl       .... 

18,603 

957 

Guernsey  milk  and  butter  have  a  higher  color  than  do  the 
products  of  any  other  breed,  and  for  this  reason  the  Guernsey 
is  especially  favored  where  cream  is  sold  in  a  critical  market. 
The  strong  and  weak  points  of  this  breed  are  practically 
the  same  as  for  the  Jersey.  They  are  best  adapted  for  the 


BREEDS    OF    CATTLE  27 

production  of  cream  and  butter.  Their  milk  yield  is  not 
sufficient  to  warrant  their  use  where  milk  is  sold  without 
reg;ird  to  its  fat  content. 

23.  Ayrshire.  The  home  of  this  breed  is  the  county,  or 
shire,  of  Ayr  in  southwest  Scotland.  This  is  a  rolling,  moder- 
ate! y  fertile  region  and  is  not  subject  to  great  extremes  of 
temperature.  The  origin  of  the  breed  is  somewhat  uncertain, 
but  it  dates  back  to  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
It  is  generally  believed  that  the  breed  was  the  result  of  cross- 
ing Holland,  Durham,  and  Channel  Island  animals  upon 
the  native  stock.  It  is  at  present  the  leading  dairy  breed 
in  Scotland  and  in  New  Zealand,  and  is  common  in  parts  of 
England. 

Ayrshire  cattle  were  brought  into  Canada  at  an  early  date, 
and  were  brought  to  Massachusetts  as  early  as  1837.  These 
importations  stopped  after  twenty  or  thirty  years,  and  were 
not  resumed  until  about  1900.  Until  recent  years  the 
Ayrshires  in  America  were  the  descendants  of  the  early 
importations.  The  importations  of  the  past  few  years  have 
met  with  the  greatest  favor,  and  as  a  result  the  best  Ayr- 
shires  in  America  are  now  of  the  same  type  as  those  found 
in  Scotland.  At  the  present  time  this  breed  ranks  fourth 
among  the  dairy  breeds  in  numbers  registered  in  the  United 
States.  They  are  most  numerous  in  the  dairy  sections  of 
the  East  and  in  Wisconsin,  Ohio,  and  Illinois.  In  portions  of 
Canada  they  constitute  the  majority  of  the  cattle  in  use. 

Many  of  their  characteristics  are  between  the  Holstein 
and  Jersey.  This  is  true  of  the  size,  yield  of  milk,  yield  of 
fat,  disposition  of  animals,  size  of  calves,  and  breeding  quali- 
ties. The  common  color  is  spotted,  red  and  white,  or  brown 
and  white  in  varying  proportions.  The  two  colors  are  dis- 
tinct and  never  blend  to  form  a  roan  as  with  the  Shorthorns. 


28 


DAIRY  FARMING 


BREEDS    OF    CATTLE  29 

The  Ayrshire  cows  do  not  show  the  extreme  angular  dairy 
type  exhibited  by  some  other  breeds.  They  are  smoother 
over  the  shoulders  and  have  fuller  hind  quarters.  The  udder 
development  is  the  most  perfect  found  in  any  breed.  Special 
att(  -ntion  has  been  paid  to  this  point  by  the  Scotch  breeders. 
The  teats  are  placed  uniformly  on  the  udder  and  are  of 
uniform  size.  The  tendency  to  short  teats  has  been  the 
cause  of  much  unfavorable  criticism,  but  the  care  which  has 
been  taken  within  recent  years  to  breed  for  longer  teats  has 
largely  removed  this  objection.  In  beef  production  Ayr- 
shires  rank  high  for  a  dairy  breed.  The  calves  weigh  65 
to  70  pounds  at  birth  and  are  strong  and  vigorous. 

TAJJLE  9.  —  PRODUCTION  OF  AYRSHIRE   CATTLE  IN  EXPERIMENT 
STATION  HERDS 


AVERAGE 

NUMBER  OP  Cows 
REPRESENTED 

Pounds  milk  per  year  
Per  cent  fat  

6533 
385 

24 
24 

Pounds  fat  per  year  
Per  cent  total  solids 

252 
129 

24 
17 

Results  from  experiment  station  herds  are  given  in  Table 
9.  An  average  yield  of  about  6000  pounds  of  milk  contain- 
ing 3.80  per  cent  fat  may  be  expected  from  a  herd  under 
farm  conditions  if  given  reasonably  good  treatment.  The 
milk  does  not  show  much  yellow  color.  The  breed  is  well 
adapted  for  the  production  of  market  milk  since  it  gives  a 
large  amount  of  milk  of  average  composition. 

The  best  record  up  to  April  1,  1916,  is  held  by  Lady  of 
Willowmoor  with  a  production  of  956  pounds  of  fat  in  one 
year. 


30  DAIRY  FARMING 

24.  Brown  Swiss.     These  cattle  are  native  to  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Switzerland  where  they  have  been  bred  as  far 
back  as  history  records.     During  the  winter  season  the  cattle 
are  kept  in  the  valleys  and  in  the  summer  they  are  pastured 
upon  the  mountain  slopes.     In  America  this  breed  is  found  in 
almost  every  state  but  as  a  rule  only  in  isolated  herds.     The 
total  number  is  small  compared  with  the  leading  dairy  breeds. 

In  appearance  these  animals  are  plain,  substantial,  and 
well  proportioned  although  inclined  to  be  fleshy  and  often 
rather  coarse  in  bone.  The  cows  reach  a  weight  of  about 
1200  pounds.  They  are  called  brown,  but  the  color  is  really 
more  of  a  mouse  color  and  varies  from  a  silver  gray  or  light 
brown,  to  a  dark  brown  or  nearly  black. 

They  are  noted  for  their  vitality  and  good  breeding  qual- 
ities. They  are  quiet  and  gentle.  The  calves  are  the  larg- 
est of  any  breed  used  in  America  and  are  easy  to  raise  on  ac- 
count of  their  strong  vitality.  As  milk  producers  the  cows 
rank  about  with  the  Ayrshires  in  both  yield  and  richness 
of  milk.  A  milk  yield  of  from  6000  to  9000  pounds  per  year 
is  often  obtained,  and  an  average  of  6500  pounds  per  cow 
should  be  obtained  under  good  conditions.  The  fat  aver- 
ages a  trifle  under  4  per  cent.  Some  excellent  advanced 
registry  records  have  been  made  by  this  breed.  The  best 
record  up  to  April  1,  1916,  is  held  by  College  Bravura  2d 
with  a  production  of  19,461  pounds  of  milk  and  798  pounds 
of  fat  in  one  year. 

25.  Dutch  Belted.     This  breed  has  practically  the  same 
characteristics  as  the  Holstein,  except  that  it  has  a  white 
band  or  belt  extending  around  the  body.     It  is  used,  to  a 
limited  extent  only,  in  the  Eastern  States. 

26.  Kerry.     These  cattle  are  smaller  than  those  of  any 
other  breed.     They  are  natives  of  Ireland.     The  average 


BREEDS    OF    CATTLE  31 

weight  of  the  cows  is  650  pounds.  The  color  is  black  with 
a  little  white  on  the  udder  and  underline.  Another  some- 
what larger  type  of  this  breed  is  known  as  the  Dexter  Kerry. 
A  Jew  small  herds  are  to  be  found  in  the  Eastern  States. 
Th<  -  cows  produce  a  large  amount  of  milk  for  their  size.  The 
miliv  averages  about  4  per  cent  of  fat. 

DUAL-PURPOSE  BREEDS 

27.  Dual-purpose.  The  term  dual-purpose  is  used  to 
describe  those  breeds  of  cattle  kept  for  both  milk  and  beef, 
in  contrast  with  the  more  specialized  breeds,  which  are 
kept  primarily  for  either  milk  or  beef  alone.  All  dairy  breeds 
ha\  e  some  value  for  beef,  and  all  beef  breeds  are  sometimes 
used  for  milk.  The  real  dual-purpose  cow  stands  about 
midway  between  the  dairy  type  and  the  beef  type.  It  must 
not  be  expected  that  a  cow  of  this  type  will  compare  as  a  dairy 
animal  with  good  individuals  of  the  special  dairy  breeds  in 
milk  production,  or  that  her  calves  can  compete  in  beef  pro- 
duction with  those  from  the  special  beef  breeds.  A  dual- 
purpose  cow  should  be  expected  to  produce  about  200  pounds 
of  butter-fat  per  year  as  against  about  300  for  an  equally  good 
specimen  of  a  special  dairy  breed,  and  her  calves  should  make 
fair  beef. 

Dual-purpose  breeds  have  been  in  favor  in  many  sections 
of  the  United  States  especially  in  the  corn  belt.  The  dual- 
purpose  breeds  are  less  economical  producers  of  dairy  prod- 
ucts than  the  special  dairy  breeds  and  for  this  reason  should 
not  be  chosen  by  the  man  who  is  making  dairying  an  impor- 
tant part  of  his  farming  operations.  If  the  dual-purpose  cow 
is  to  be  used  at  all,  it  should  be  on  the  general  farm  in  the 
com  belt  where  cream  is  sold  and  skim-milk  is  available  for 
feeding  calves  and  pigs,  and  where  the  abundance  of  roughage 


32  DAIRY  FARMING 

makes  it  .desirable  to  have  more  animals  to  consume  it  than 
the  farmer  is  prepared  to  handle  in  the  form  of  dairy  cows. 

28.  Shorthorn.  The  Shorthorn  is  probably  the  best 
known  and  most  widely  distributed  breed  of  cattle.  Its 
native  home  is  northeast  England  in  the  counties  of  York 


FIG.  5.  —  Doris  Clay,  a  Shorthorn  cow  of  the  dairy  type  with  a  milk 
record  of  10,270  pounds  in  one  year.  A  dual-purpose  cow  but  showing 
more  dairy  characteristics  than  is  typical. 

and  Durham.  The  name  Durham,  which  was  formerly  ap- 
plied to  this  breed  to  some  extent,  is  explained  in  this  way. 
As  with  other  breeds  it  is  not  possible  to  tell  exactly  how  the 
breed  was  originated.  It  is  probable  that  the  cattle  brought 
from  the  Continent  were  crossed  with  the  native  English 
stock.  It  is  certain  that  Holland  cattle  were  also  a  factor 
in  the  improvement.  The  first  systematic  breeding  began 


BREEDS    OF    CATTLE  33 

about  1780.  The  men  best  known  in  the  early  history  of 
th(  breed  are  Charles  and  Robert  Colling,  Thomas  Bates, 
Thomas  Booth,  and,  more  recently,  Amos  Cruickshank.  In 
developing  this  breed  most  attention  was  given  to  early 
muturity  and  good  beef  qualities.  At  the  same  time  cer- 
tain breeders,  especially  Thomas  Bates,  were  equally  inter- 
ested in  developing  a  dual-purpose,  or  general-purpose,  ani- 
nic  1  in  which  the  dairy  qualities  and  the  beef  characteristics 
should  be  well  balanced.  As  a  beef  animal  the  Shorthorn 
ranks  in  the  first  class.  Within  recent  times  the  beef  quali- 
ties have  been  best  developed  in  animals  descended  from  the 
he  pd  of  Cruickshank.  At  the  present  time  animals  of  this 
breed  seen  in  the  show  ring  in  America  are  of  the  most 
pronounced  beef  type,  and  their  popularity  is  based  upon 
their  beef  qualities.  Certain  strains,  however,  have  been 
developed  by  breeders  who  have  maintained  the  milking 
characteristic  of  the  early  type,  and  as  a  result  at  the  present 
time  there  is  a  fairly  distinct  milking  type  of  pure-bred 
Shorthorns  found  in  large  numbers  in  England  and  to  a 
limited  extent  in  America.  In  recent  years  a  number  of 
milk  and  butter  records  have  been  made  by  cows  of  this 
breed  that  rank  with  the  special  dairy  breeds. 

Herds  selected  and  bred  for  dual-purpose  should  average 
about  5000  pounds  of  milk  per  year  with  a  fat  content  of 
from  3.8  to  4  per  cent.  The  highest  record  up  to  April  1, 
1916,  is  held  by  Rose  of  Glenside,  18,075  pounds  of  milk  and 
625  pounds  of  fat  in  one  year. 

The  dual-purpose  type  does  not  have  so  good  a  beef 
.conformation  as  the  strains  developed  for  beef.  The  beef 
animals  of  this  breed  produce  more  milk  than  does  the  Here- 
ford, Angus,  or  Galloway.  The  Shorthorn  is  more  widely 
distributed  than  any  other  breed,  being  widely  used  in 

D 


34  DAIRY  FARMING 

North  and  South  America,  South  Africa,  and  Australia,  as 
well  as  in  its  native  home. 

The  colors  may  be  pure  red,  pure  white,  red  and  white,  or 
roan.  The  color  cannot  be  taken  as  in  any  way  an  indication 
of  the  quality  of  the  animal.  The  mature  cows  usually  weigh 
about  1400  pounds  but  may  reach  1800  pounds  or  more. 
They  are  larger  than  the  cows  of  any  other  breed. 

Importations  to  America  began  as  early  as  1790,  al- 
though in  small  numbers  until  between  1830  and  1840  when 
a  large  number  were  brought  into  Ohio.  The  American 
Shorthorn  Breeders'  Association  was  established  in  1882  and 
since  that  time  has  looked  after  the  interests  of  the  breed. 
More  cattle  of  this  breed  have  been  registered  than  of  any 
other. 

29.  Polled  Durham.     Polled  Durham    cattle   are   either 
pure-bred  Shorthorns  or  nearly  so.     They  are  of  American 
origin.     The    "  Single    Standard"    Polled    Durhams'  were 
originated  by  crossing  native  mulley  cows  with  pure-bred 
Shorthorns.     After  a  certain  number  of  crosses  of  Short- 
horn  blood   these   animals   were   registered   in   the   Polled 
Durham  herdbook.     The  "  Double  Standard  "  Polled  Dur- 
hams are  so  called  since  they  are  eligible  to  registry  in  the 
Shorthorn  herdbookl     They  were  originated  from  naturally 
mulley  cows  which  appeared  in  pure-bred  Shorthorns.     At 
the  present  time  the  latter  line  of  breeding  has  practically 
superseded  the  former.     They  are  in  every  respect  the  same 
as  Shorthorns  except   for  the  polled  characteristics.     They 
are  found  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  Central  States 
and  have  met  with  considerable  favor  on  account  of  the 
polled  characteristics. 

30.  Red  Polled.     Th's  breed  is  classed  as  dual-purpose  and 
comes  nearest  at  the  present  time,  as  a  breed,  to  meeting  the 


BREEDS    OF    CATTLE 


35 


definition  of  this  classification.  It  is  native  to  the  counties  of 
Su'folk  and  Norfolk  in  the  eastern  part  of  England.  It  is 
believed  by  some  who  have  studied  the  question  that  Red 
Polls  are  descended  from  cattle  brought  to  England  by  the 
Dnnes  and  mixed  with  the  native  cattle.  Until  1846  the 
cai  tie  of  these  two  counties  were  known  as  independent 
breeds,  but  on  account  of  their  similarity,  at  this  date  they 


FIG.  6  —  Jean  Duluth  Beauty,  a  Red  Polled  cow,  with  a  record  of  20,280 
pounds  of  milk,  and  892  pounds  of  fat  in  one  year.  A  dual-purpose  cow 
with  a  remarkable  dairy  record. 

were  combined  and  have  since  been  known  as  Red  Polls. 
They  are  used  in  England  as  dual-purpose  cattle.  At  the 
present  time  the  breed  is  found  mostly  in  the  two  counties 
where  it  originated,  to  some  extent  in  Australia  and  New 
Zealand,  and  in  considerable  numbers  in  America. 

They  were  probably  introduced  into  America  during  the 
colonial  times,  but  it  was  not  until  after  1870  that  animals 
were  brought  over  the  descendants  of  which  have  been  kept 


36  DAIRY  FARMING 

pure.  They  are  most  numerous  in  the  Middle  States.  They 
yield  a  medium  amount  of  milk,  take  on  flesh  readily,  and 
make  a  fair  grade  of  beef.  As  beef  animals  they  do  not  rank 
in  the  first  class,  nor  can  the  cows  compete  in  milk  and  fat 
production  with  the  special  dairy  breeds.  A  herd  kepi  under 
good  farm  coin lil  ions  may  be  expected  to  average  about  ,r)()()() 
pounds  of  pajlk  per  year,  containing  close  to  4  per  cent  of  fat 
on  (he  average.  A  number  of  excellent  milk  records  have 
been  made,  (hough  none  are  comparable  with  those  of  the 
special  dairy  breeds.  The  cows  usually  weigh  between  1200 
and  1300  pounds,  but  occasionally  more  ;  while  the  bulls  reach 
a  weight  of  about  a  ton.  In  color  (hey  are  a  deep  cherry 
red;  white  may  appear  on  the  switch  of  the  tail,  on  the 
udder,  and  a  few  white  markings  are  allowed  on  the  belly. 
White  on  any  other  part  disqualifies  the  animal  for  registra- 
tion. American  herds  of  this  breed  vary  widely  in  type. 
Some  breeders  have  given  most  attention  (o  beef  production. 
Other  breeders  have  given  most  attention  to  dairy  qualities. 
The  propel-  type  to  maintain  is  a  balance  between  these  two 
extremes.  The  best  record  up  to  April  1,  1916,  of  20,280 
pounds  of  milk  am}  892  pounds  of  fat  is  held  by  Jean  Duluth 
Beauty. 

31.  Devon.  Devon  cattle  are  commonly  classed  as 
dual-purpose.  They  were  bred  and  developed  in  Devon- 
shire1, England.  They  are  thought  to  be  one  of  the  oldest 
of  I  he  breeds  that  originated  in  (Jreat  Britain.  The  Devons 
are  smaller  than  the  distinctive  beef  breeds,  the  cows  weigh- 
ing from  1200  to  1300  pounds.  The  color  is  a  bright  red. 
The  animal  is  bloeky  and  compact  with  a  noticeable  refine- 
ment in  bone.  They  are  fair  milk  producers,  yielding  milk 
rich  in  fat,  comparing  favorably  in  this  respect  with  the 
Jerseys.  The  breed  is  not  numerous  in  the  United  States 


B REEDS    OF    CATTLE  37 

but  is  found  to  some  extent  in  the  Eastern  States.  Their 
popularity  seems  to  be  decreasing,  judging  from  the  number 
tli  it  are  exhibited  at  fairs. 

BEEF  BREEDS 

32.  Hereford.     This  breed  has  been  developed  strictly 
for  beef  purposes.     The  cows  are  milked  to  a  very  limited 
extent.     A  few  cows  in  a  herd  kept  primarily  for  beef  may 
hi  utilized  to  supply  the  family  of  the  owner  with  milk,  or  at 
times  may  produce  enough  to  make  it  possible  to  sell  a 
small  amount  of  dairy  products.     There  are  no  records  of 
in. Ik  production  available,  although  it  is  known  that  the  milk 
of  this  breed  ranks  rather  high  in  richness  and  has  much  the 
s;i;ue  characteristics  as  that  of  the  Dcvons.     The  Hereford 
probably  ranks  lowest  in  dairy  qualities.     As  is  the  case 
with  all  beef  breeds,  occasionally  a  cow  is  found  that  is  a  fair 
mi  Ik  producer,  but  she  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  transmit 
tli  is  characteristic.     This  breed  is  a  native  of  Hereford  in 
the  south  central  part  of  England,  where  it  has  been  devel- 
oped for  about  150  years.     The  cows  reach  a  weight  of  about 
1-4 IK)  pounds  and  the  bulls  as  high  as  2200  pounds.     The 
most   distinctive   characteristic   of  the   breed   is   the   white 
face,  which  is  never  absent.     This  is  transmitted  very  strongly 
to  practically  all  animals  having  even  a  small  amount  of  Here- 
ford blood.     Herefords  arc  used  mostly  for  grazing  on  the 
plains  of  the  West  and  Southwest. 

33.  Aberdeen-Angus.     This  excellent  breed  of  beef  cattle 
ranks  about  with  the  Hereford  as  a  producer  of  milk.     The 
cattle  are  always  black  in  color  and  polled.     Only  rarely  is  a 
cow  found  that  would  be  profitable  in  a  dairy.     These  excep- 
tional cows  cannot  be  counted  upon  to  reproduce  this  charac- 
teristic in  their  offspring.     They  are  bred  primarily  for  beef, 


38 


DAIRY  FARMING 


but  are  often  used  in  a  limited  way  for  supplying  milk  for 
the  use  of  the  owners.  Angus  grades  may  even  be  found 
occasionally  in  mixed  herds  kept  for  milk.  Practically  no 
records  of  the  amount  or  richness  of  milk  are  available.  A 
limited  number  of  fat  tests  made  by  the  author  indicate  that 
the  milk  of  this  breed  averages  about  4.0  per  cent  of  fat,  or 
about  the  same  as  that  of  the  Shorthorns.  The  Angus  breed 
originated  in  northern  Scotland.  In  America  it  is  found 
chiefly  in  the  corn-producing  states.  It  has  not  been  con- 
sidered the  equal  of  the  Hereford  on  the  ranges. 

34.  Galloway.  This  breed  is  a  native  of  southwestern 
Scotland.  The  cattle  are  black  in  color,  always  polled,  and 
are  especially  known  for  their  long,  thick  hair,  seen  to  the  best 
advantage  during  the  winter  season  in  northern  regions. 
They  are  found  chiefly  in  the  Middle  States  and  on  the  ranges. 
They  are  strictly  a  beef  breed.  No  records  are  available 
regarding  the  yield  of  milk  or  its  richness.  As  is  the  case 
with  other  beef  breeds,  occasionally  a  reasonably  good  milk 
producer  is  found. 

QUESTIONS   AND    PROBLEMS 

1.  Which  means  more,  to  say  that  an  animal  is  pure-bred  or  to 
say  that  it  is  registered  ? 

2.  Fill  out  a  table  like  the  following,  including  all  breeds  of  cattle. 


BREED 

NATIVE 
HOME 

HORNED 

OR 

HORNLESS 

DAIRY,  DUAL- 
PURPOSE 
OR  BEEF 

COLORS 

USUAL 
WEIGHT 
POUNDS 

BREEDS  OF  CATTLE  39 

3.  Tell  how  each  breed  of  cattle  may  be  distinguished. 

4.  From  Tables  6,  7,  8,  9,  find  the  percentage  of  solids  not  fat 
for  i;he  milk  of  each  breed. 

5.  How  did  Shorthorn  cattle  come  to  be  called  Durham  ? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  Channel  Islands? 

7.  On  a  map  locate  the  region  where  each  breed  originated. 
Gh  o  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  region  as  to  climate,  topog- 
rapliy,  and  food  supply  for  cattle.     Which  one  of  the  regions  is  most 
like  the  region  where  you  live? 

8.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  known  owners  of  pure-bred  cattle  in  the 
school  district  or  region,  with  the  breeds  owned  and  numbers  of 
eacii  breed. 

9.  Which  breed  of  dairy  cattle  is  most  numerous  in  the  region  ? 
Wl  i  ich  one  is  increasing  most  rapidly  ?     Why  ? 

10.   Why  did  so  many  breeds  originate  in  Europe,  and  why  does 
the  same  thing  not  happen  in  America? 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  If  different  breeds  of  cattle  are  available,  make  comparisons 
of  t  hem,  and  write  a  description  of  the  cattle  of  each  breed  that  were 
studied.     The  score  cards  given  on  pages  290  to  296  may  be  of  help 
in  studying  each  breed. 

2.  Make  an  outline  drawing  of  the  head  of  a  Jersey  and  of  a 
Holstein  cow  as  seen  from  the  front.     If  possible  measure  the 
length  and  width  and  draw  to  scale.     The  difference  in  the  shape 
of  the  head  is  supposed  to  be  one  indication  that  these  breeds  are 
descended  from  two  distinct  forms  of  wild  cattle. 

COLLATERAL    READING 

Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  106. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  L.  H.  Bailey,  Vol.  Ill,  pp. 
30  L-302  and  330-382. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  C.  S.  Plumb,  pp.  169-332. 
Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,  C.  H.  Eckles,  pp.  27-106. 


CHAPTER  3 

SELECTION  AND   IMPROVEMENT   OF  DAIRY 
CATTLE 

C.  H.  ECKLES 
SELECTION  OF  A  BREED 

35.  Selection  of  a  Breed.  One  of  the  first  questions  that 
arises  in  starting  a  herd  is  the  choice  of  a  breed.  There  is  a 
tendency  to  attach  too  much  importance  to  this  decision. 
In  choosing  a  breed  the  following  points  should  be  con- 
sidered. 

1.  Kind  of  cattle  most  common  in  the  locality. 

2.  Form  in  which  the  products  are  to  be  marketed. 

3.  Topography,  climate,  and  food  supply. 

4.  Preference  of  the  breeder. 

5.  Average  production  of  milk. 

6.  Average  production  of  butter-fat. 

7.  Economy  of  production  of  milk  and  fat. 

8.  Breeding  qualities  of  the  cows. 

9.  Vigor  of  the  calves. 

10.  Adaptability  of  the  calves  for  veal,  and  beef  value  of 
discarded  cows  and  bulls. 

1 1 .  Original  cost  and  probable  demand  for  surplus  animals. 
Most  of  the  points  have  been  discussed  in  the  previous 

chapter.  The  advantages  to  the  farmer  of  using  the  same 
kind  of  stock  as  his  neighbors,  should  be  given  far  greater 
prominence  than  his  own  preference  or  any  small  points  of 

40 


SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE      41 

difference  between  breeds.  The  advantages  may  be  enu- 
me  -ated  as  follows  : 

J .  May  save  expense  in  buykig  males  for  breeding,  and 
maKe  it  possible  to  make  more  use  of  a  bull  that  is  found  to 
sin  especially  valuable  animals. 

L'.  It  is  a  great  advantage  in  selling  stock,  since  buyers  are 
atl  racted  by  large  numbers  of  the  same  breed  in  one  locality. 

:;.  May  save  expense  in  official  testing  of  registered  cows 
for  advanced  registration. 

•':.  Makes  possible  a  local  breed  organization  and  creates 
grc  ater  interest  in  good  stock  and  proper  management. 

if  the  pastures  are  steep  and  rocky,  the  more  active  breeds 
arc  likely  to  be  most  successful.  Where  pastures  are  luxu- 
riant and  where  large  quantities  or  roughage  are  used,  the 
larger  breeds  are  more  at  home. 

Between  similar  breeds  the  preference  of  the  breeder 
mtiy  decide  the  choice.  For  example,  if  location  and  market 
would  suggest  the  Jersey  or  the  Guernsey  as  the  most 
suitable,  the  choice  between  the  two  might  be  easily  deter- 
mined by  preference.  If  the  dairy  farmer  expects  to  sell 
milk  for  market,  wholesale  or  retail,  his  choice  would  hardly 
fall  on  the  Channel  Island  breeds,  unless  the  market  is  the 
exceptional  one  that  will  pay  enough  more  for  rich  milk  to 
justify  its  production.  For  milk  production  the  Holstein, 
Ayrshire,  or  Brown  Swiss  would  be  the  natural  choice.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  the  location  is  such  that  cream  is  to  be 
sold,  then  the  Jersey  and  Guernsey  breeds  would  come  in 
for  strong  consideration  on  account  of  their  well-known 
economical  use  of  feed  for  the  production  of  butter-fat. 
Under  these  conditions  the  probable  value  of  skim-milk 
for  pigs  and  for  calf  feeding  is  still  another  consideration 
and  in  some  cases  is  sufficient  to  cause  the  choice  to  fall 


42 


DAIRY  FARMING 


upon  the  Holstein  on  account  of  the  large  production  of  this 
valuable  by-product. 

When  selling  butter-fat,  cream  or  butter,  the  total  quan- 
tity of  fat  and  not  the  percentage  of  fat  is  the  important 
point.  For  cheese  making  and  for  market  milk,  the  total 
solids,  and  not  fat  alone  are  what  is  wanted. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  data  that  are  entirely  satisfactory 
regarding  the  relative  production  of  the  breeds.  The  best 
figures  the  author  has  been  able  to  gather  are  brought  to- 
gether in  Table  10.  These  are  yearly  records  of  pure-bred 
animals  as  reported  by  experiment  stations  in  the  United 
States  for  animals  owned  by  them.  It  is  assumed  that  the 
conditions  under  which  these  records  are  made  are  fairly 
comparable  with  and  certainly  no  more  favorable  than  those 
found  in  good  herds  owned  by  individuals. 

TABLE  10.  —  PRODUCTION  PER  YEAR   OF  Cows  OWNED  BY  EX- 
PERIMENT STATIONS 


AVERAGE  POUNDS 

AVERAGE  PER  CENT 

MILK 

FAT  FOR  YEAR 

AVERAGE 

Number 

Pounds 

Number 

Per  Cent 

FAT 

Cows 

Milk 

Cows 

Fat 

Holsteins     .     .     . 

83 

8699 

83 

3.45 

300 

Jerseys   .     .     .     . 

153 

5508 

154 

5.14 

283 

Shorthorns 

37 

6017 

40 

3.63 

218 

Red  Polls    .     .     . 

9 

5906 

9 

4.03 

238 

Guernseys 

17 

5509 

21 

4.98 

274 

Ayrshires     .     .     . 

24 

6533 

24 

3.85 

252 

INDIVIDUAL  SELECTION 

36.  Selection  of  Individual  Cows.  The  success  of  a  dairy 
farmer  depends  more  upon  the  selection  of  the  individuals 
within  the  breed  than  it  does  upon  the  choice  of  a  breed. 


SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE     43 

Tho  efforts  of  the  breeder  are  constantly  directed  towards 
the1  development  of  the  dairy  breeds  to  the  point  where  the 
characteristic  of  high  milk  production  will  be  uniformly 
inherited.  Even  our  poorest  dairy  cows  give  much  more 
milk  than  was  given  under  natural  conditions.  Although 
much  progress  has  been  made  we  must  always  expect  many 
covv's  to  fall  below  our  standards  because  these  standards 
arc  so  far  above  nature.  A  certain  number  of  the  dairy 
cows  with  good  parents  will  have  inferior  dairy  qualities. 
No  method  of  growing  the  heifer  or  of  feeding  the  mature 
cow  can  make  a  naturally  inferior  cow  into  a  good  one. 
The  cow  must  first  of  all  have  the  tendency  to  use  her  feed 
for  making  milk.  High  production  of  milk  results  from 
selecting  such  a  cow  and  then  providing  the  proper  amount 
an«l  kind  of  feed.  A  cow  of  high  dairy  qualities  will  do  little 
if  uny  better  than  one  of  inferior  quality  unless  given  suffi- 
cient and  suitable  feed. 

There  is  little  evidence  to  support  the  common  idea  that 
an  inferior  cow  is  the  result  of  wrong  methods  of  raising  as 
a  calf.  Recent  experiments  indicate  that  while  the  size  of 
the  animal  and  possibly  the  vigor  may  be  influenced  by  the 
feeding  when  young,  the  tendency  to  produce  milk  is  not 
much  affected  by  the  methods  followed  in  raising  the  ani- 
mal.1 It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  this  does  not 
mean  that  it  makes  no  difference  how  a  calf  is  raised.  It 
means  that  the  efficiency  of  the  cow  as  a  milk  producer  is 
chiefly  a  matter  of  inheritance.  Her  yield  of  milk  is  the 
result  of  this  inheritance  plus  the  method  of  feeding  and 
management. 

If  a  cow  shows  one  year  that  she  has  inherited  a  tendency 
toward  milk  production,  she  can  be  expected  to  produce 

1  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  135. 


44 


DAIRY  FARMING 


well  for  her  entire  lifetime.  A  cow  that  is  a  small  pro- 
ducer by  inheritance  remains  so  year  after  year.  The  aver- 
age yearly  records  in  Table  11,  selected,  f rom  many  kept  by 
the  writer  for  a  number  of  cows  for  a  term  of  years,  indicate 
this  fact.  Some  variation  occurs,  but  Table  11  shows  that 

TABLE    11.  —  YIELD  OF  BUTTER-FAT  OF  DIFFERENT  INDIVIDUALS 
BY  YEARS  IN  POUNDS 


BREED 

FIRST 
YEAR 

SECOND 
YEAR 

THIRD 
YEAR 

FOURTH 
YEAR 

FIFTH 
YEAR 

SIXTH 
YEAR 

SEVENTH 
YEAR 

Jersey 

296 

416 

468 

499 

580 

Jersey    

44 

115 

169 

159 

Jersey 

336 

452 

545 

425 

440 

Jersey    

62 

171 

123 

Holstein     .... 
Holstein     .... 

282 
151 

323 
167 

330 
210 

450 

380 

373 

390 

the  good  cows  were  good  producers  year  after  year,  while 
the  inferior  ones  remained  poor  just  as  regularly.  Occasion- 
ally a  cow  has  a  poor  year  because  she  is  out  of  condition, 
but  normally  the  results  will  be  uniform  when  the  feed  and 
care  are  the  same. 

37.  Extent  of  Variation  of  Individuals.  An  abundance 
of  data  has  been  gathered  within  recent  years  to  make  it 
plain  that  the  variation  of  individuals  as  milk  producers 
is  the  greatest  single  factor  in  the  success  of  the  dairy. 
The  Connecticut  Experiment  Station  found  the  five  most 
profitable  in  their  herd  were  fed  a  year  at  a  cost  of  $56.54 
each,  while  the  five  poorest  consumed  feed  worth  $52.02. 
The  best  five  averaged  304  pounds  of  fat  for  the  year,  and 
the  poorest  five  189  pounds.  One  group  lacked  $4.09  per 
cow  of  paying  for  their  feed.  The  other  group  gave  $26.91 
per  cow  above  the  cost  of  feed.  For  $4.52  in  additional  feed 


SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE      45 


FIG.  7.  —  An  example  of  wide  variation  in  production.  These  cows 
are  registered  Jerseys  and  half  sisters.  The  one  above  averaged  418 
pounds  of  fat  for  the  first  three  years  in  milk.  With  the  same  treatment 
the  one  below  averaged  109  pounds  of  fat  for  the  same  three  years.  The 
variation  in  the  production  was  due  to  inherited  characteristics. 


46  DAIRY  FARMING 

the  animals  in  the  better  group  produced  115  pounds  more 
fat  each.1  Reports  from  the  Southern  States  for  719  cows, 
covering  in  each  case  a  full  year,  show  that  for  each  $1.00 
invested  in  feed  the  best  10  cows  gave  returns  of  $2.20,  while 
the  poorest  10  cows  barely  returned  the  value  of  the  feed. 
The  best  30  cows  produced  three  and  a  half  times  as  much  as 
the  poorest  animals.2 

In  the  University  of  Missouri  herd  one  pure-bred  Jersey 
averaged  480  pounds  of  fat  per  year  for  three  years,  while 
her  half  sister  averaged  114  pounds  for  the  same  period. 
A  test  of  18  Illinois  herds,  including  226  cows,  showed  the 
best  herd  to  average  389  pounds  of  fat  and  the  poorest  142. 3 

38.  The  High-producing  Cows  More  Economical  Pro- 
ducers. A  striking  fact  brought  out  by  all  such  figures  is  that 
the  high  producers  will  give  a  greater  return  from  the  same 
amount  of  feed.  It  costs  from  $10  to  $15  more  per  year  to 
feed  the  cow  that  produces  350  pounds  of  fat  than  it  costs  to 
feed  the  cow  that  yields  200  pounds.  It  is  a  common  mis- 
take to  assume  that  it  costs  no  more  to  feed  a  cow  producing 
10,000  pounds  of  milk  per  year  than  it  does  to  feed  one  yielding 
5000  pounds  of  milk  of  the  same  quality.  The  larger  producer 
must  use  more  feed,  but  not  double  that  used  by  the  smaller. 
The  former  will  use  about  25  per  cent  more  feed  than  the 
latter,  while  the  production  of  milk  is  100  per  cent  more. 
In  many  herds  that  have  not  been  carefully  culled,  a  greater 
total  profit  might  be  realized  by  retaining  one-half  to  two- 
thirds  of  the  herd  and  disposing  of  the  inferior  cows,  but  a 
still  better  return  may  come  from  replacing  the  poor  cows 
by  good  ones. 

1  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  29. 

2  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  .Vnimal  Industry,  25th  Annual  Report,  p.  67. 

3  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Circular  102. 


SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE     47 

SELECTION  BY  TYPE 

39.  How  Individual   Selection  is   Made.     There  are  in 
general  two  methods  of  selecting  dairy  cows.     The  first  is 
by  type  or  conformation,  and  the  second  is  by  records  of 
pr<  'duction.     There  is  undoubtedly  a  certain  conformation 
th;  t  generally  goes  with  high  milk  production.     This  con- 
formation is  generally  distinct  enough  to  enable  experienced 
judges  to  select  very  good  from  very  inferior  cows.     As  a 
rule  it  is  fairly  easy  to  select  cows  that  will  yield  300  to  350 
pounds  of  fat  per  year  from  those  that  will  give  half  that 
an  ount.     It  is  not  possible,  however,  to  judge  by  this  means 
alrne  which  one  will  produce  300  and  which  one  500  pounds 
per  year.     Often  even  experienced  judges  will  make  decided 
errors  in  selecting  animals  by  thi's  method,  especially  if  the 
cow  is  not  in  the  most  favorable  condition  to  be  judged. 
Since  records  are  available  for  very  few  cows  offered  for  sale, 
it  is  necessary  for  most  cattle  buyers  to  depend  largely  upon 
type. 

If  it  were  possible  to  select  all  cows  when  giving  their 
largest  yield  of  milk,  judging  by  type  would  be  reasonably 
accurate.  Under  practical  conditions  this  is  not  possible, 
and  cows  have  to  be  selected  that  vary  from  dry  to  the  high- 
est milk  flow.  The  appearance  of  a  dry  cow  gives  little 
indication  of  her  merits. 

40.  The  Dairy  Type.     The  three  striking  points  in  the 
conformation  of  a  highly  developed  dairy  cow  are : 

1.  The  spare  angular  form,    carrying    no    surplus    flesh 
but   showing   evidence  of  liberal  feeding  in   her   vigorous 
condition. 

2.  The  extraordinary  size  and  development  of  the  udder 
and  milk  veins. 


FIG.  8.  —  These  pure-bred  Jerseys  illustrate  a  wide  range  in  type  and 
also  the  relation  of  type  to  production.  The  cow  above  shows  good  type. 
A  large  barrel  with  plenty  of  depth  from  hips  to  the  udder,  well-developed 
udder  and  milk  veins.  She  produced  592  pounds  of  fat  in  a  year. 

The  animal  below,  although  perfectly  healthy,  is  very  shallow  in  body, 
has  a  small  barrel,  and  an  extremely  small  udder ;  she  produced  122 
pounds  of  fat  in  a  year. 


SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE      49 


,';.  The  marked  development  of  the  barrel  in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  the  animal. 

^  high-class  dairy  cow  rarely  carries  much  flesh  when  in 
full  flow  of  milk.  At  the  same  time  her  alert  vigorous  ap- 


Steer  at  middle  of  barrel. 


Steer  at  heart  girth. 


Dairy  cow  at  middle  of  barrel 


Dairy  cow  at  heart  girth. 


FIG.  9.  —  Cross  section  of  a  fat  steer  compared  with  that  of  a  high-class 
dairy  cow.  Notice  the  large  abdomen,  bony  back,  and  sharp  withers  of  the 
cow.  The  skeleton  of  the  steer  is  more  fully  covered  with  flesh. 


50 


DAIRY  FARMING 


pearance,  her  soft  pliable  skin  and  soft  hair  show  that  she  is 
not  thin  on  account  of  a  lack  of  feed.  An  animal  thin  in 
flesh  on  account  of  insufficient  feed  has  a  stupid  appearance 
and  shows  a  lack  of  vigor,  while  the  hair  generally  is  rough 
and  stands  on  end.  In  either  case  the  paunch  may  be  large 
or  small,  depending  on  the  bulkiness  of  the  feed  consumed. 

__^         So    characteristic   is   the 

angular  appearance  of   the 
dairy   cow  that  an  animal 
^^k  that    does    not    show    this 

form  when  in  full  flow  of 
milk  should  not  be  selected. 
When  the  cow  is  near  the 
end  of  the  lactation  period, 
or  is  dry,  she  should  carry 
more  flesh,  and  it  is  a  mis- 
take to  be  too  quick  to  con- 
demn a  cow  at  this  stage 
for  being  too  beefy. 

The  well-developed  beef 
animal  on  the  other  hand  is 

square  and  blocky.  The  general  shape,  leaving  the  legs 
and  head  out  of  consideration,  is  rectangular.  The  back  is 
broad  and  level,  the  thighs  full  and  straight. 

This  difference  in  the  shape  of  the  body  of  a  high-class 
dairy  cow  and  of  a  fat  steer  ready  for  market  is  shown  by  the 
cross  sections  in  Fig.  9.  These  were  obtained  by  a  device 
that  made  it  possible  to  get  the  exact  outlines. 

41.  The  Udder.  A  well-developed  udder  is  the  most 
important  characteristic  to  be  considered  in  selecting  a  cow 
for  milk  production.  Since  this  gland  has  the  function  of 
secreting  the  milk,  its  size  and  development  are  of  the  great- 


FIG.  10.  —  A  well-formed  udder. 
Note  the  length  of  attachment  to  the 
body,  and  the  well-developed  fore- 
quarters. 


SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE      51 

est  importance  in  judging  the  milk-producing  ability  of  the 

co\\ .     It  is  not  alone  size,  but  active  secreting  cells  that 

con  at.     For  this  reason  a  meaty  hard  udder  that  remains 

nen  fly  as  large  after  milking  as  before  is  of  little  value.     The 

udoer  should  have  a  long  attachment  to  the  body,  extending 

well  up  in  the  rear  and  well  forward  in  front.     The  quarters 

should  be  even  in  size  without 

dec  p  indentations  between,  and 

the  teats  should  be  of  proper  size 

for  convenient  milking  and  evenly 

pla  3ed.     When  the  cow  is  dry,  it 

is  impossible  to  judge  accurately 

of  'he  development  of  the  udder. 

However,  a  large  amount  of  loose 

ski  a  showing  an   abundance   of 

room   for    expansion    when    the       FIG     n   __  A    well.formed 

udder   is    filled    may    be    taken    udder.     Figs.  10    and   n   are 

.     ,.      ,.  both  high-producing  cows. 

as  an  indication  that  the  udder 

will  develop  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  Little  can  be  judged 
regarding  the  future  size  and  shape  of  the  udder  in  the  calf 
or  heifer  until  the  time  for  calving  approaches. 

42.  The  Milk  Veins  and  Milk  Wells.  Large  milk  veins 
an;  one  of  the  indications  of  high  milk  production  that  should 
be  given  careful  attention.  The  blood  after  passing  through 
the  udder  and  supplying  the  cells  with  material  for  secreting 
milk  starts  back  towards  the  heart  through  the  milk  veins. 
The  name,  of  course,  is  a  misnomer  since  they  carry  blood, 
not  milk.  One  of  these  opens  on  either  side  near  the  front 
of  the  udder  and  passes  forward  just  beneath  the  skin.  These 
veins  crook  back  and  forth  and  sometimes  separate  into 
two  or  more  divisions  and  finally  pass  upward  through 
the  wall  of  the  abdomen  into  the  body  cavity.  The  por- 


DAIRY  FARMING 


tions  of  the  veins  from  the  udder  to  the  openings  through 
which  they  pass  into  the  abdomen  are  spoken  of  as  the  milk 
veins.  The  openings  are  known  as  the  milk  wells.  The 
milk  veins  are  one  of  the  most  reliable  indications  of  dairy 
quality,  since  a  large  milk  production  calls  for  a  large  flow 


FIG.  12.  —  Udder  of  an  inferior  cow. 
This  udder  is  large  and  well  shaped  but 
meaty,  and  is  nearly  as  large  after  milking 
as  before. 


FIG.  13.  —  A  very  pendulous 
udder,  objectionable  because  it 
interferes  with  the  cow  when 
walking,  and  because  it  easily 
becomes  soiled. 


of  blood  to  the  udder,  and  large  milk  veins  indicate  such  a 
circulation. 

43.  The  Barrel.  The  term  barrel  is  applied  in  general 
to  that  portion  of  a  cow's  body  between  the  hind  and  fore 
legs.  The  dairy  cow  to  be  a  heavy  producer  must  consume 
enormous  quantities  of  feed.  To  do  this  requires  large  or- 
gans of  digestion.  A  high-producing  cow  has  wide-sprung 
ribs  and  a  deep  abdomen,  giving  great  capacity  for  the  di- 
gestive tract  and  other  vital  organs. 


SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE      53 

An  animal  lacking  in  barrel  cannot  use  sufficient  feed  to 
ma  ke  her  a  large  producer.  The  age  of  the  animal  has  some 
influence  upon  the  size  of  the  barrel.  The  apparent  capacity 
is  also  influenced  to  some  extent  by  the  ration  fed.  Bulky 
feeds,  such  as  hay  and  silage,  when  fed  in  large  quantities 
gh  e  this  effect.  In  considering  the  barrel  development  of  a 
cow  the  depth  as  viewed  from  the  side  should  be  observed, 
th<>n  the  width  as  viewed  from  behind.  Some  animals  show 


FIG.  14.  —  A  typical  weak  FIG.  15.  —  Udder  showing  poor  devel- 
fore  udder,  a  very  common  opment  behind,  and  short  attachment  to 
defect.  the  body. 

great  depth  but  on  account  of  being  narrow  really  have  a  small 
capacity.  In  short  a  dairy  cow  should  show  great  vigor, 
great  capacity  to  use  food,  and  should  have  a  strong  de- 
velopment of  the  milk-secreting  organs,  indicating  that  she 
is  likely  to  use  the  food  for  milk  production. 

44.  The  Score  Card.  The  score  cards  adopted  by  the  vari- 
ous breed  associations  are  shown  on  pages  290  to  296.  These 
are  designed  to  set  forth  the  desirable  characteristics  of  the 
breed  and  may  be  studied  as  a  means  of  becoming  familiar 
with  breed  types.  The  preceding  discussion  of  the  dairy 
type  is  general  and  applies  to  all  breeds.  It  is  based  wholly 
upon  the  indications  of  milk  production  and  does  not  take 


54 


DAIRY  FARMING 


into  account  the  many  smaller  points  that  go  to  make  up  a 
conformation  that  is  symmetrical  and  pleasing  to  the  eye. 
The  breed  associations  in  preparing  their  score  cards,  in 


FIG.  16.  —  Defective  udders.  The  one  on  the  left  is  that  of  a  pure-bred 
dairy  cow  that  produced  only  10  pounds  of  milk  daily.  This  udder  is  ex- 
tremely small,  ill-shaped,  weak  in  the  forequarters,  and  the  teats  are  too 
short.  The  one  on  the  right  has  very  small  capacity  with  almost  no  de- 
velopment in  the  forequarters. 

certain  cases,  apparently  emphasize  points  in  which  the 
breed  is  likely  to  be  deficient.  An  example  of  this  is  the 
large  number  of  points  given  to  the  fore  udder  in  the  Jersey 
score  card.  Before  using  the  score  card  the  student  should 


FIG.  17.  —  A  well-developed  milk  vein.  On  this  cow  the  milk  vein  is 
over  one  inch  in  diameter  ana  extends  forward  nearly  to  the  front  legs, 
entering  the  body  through  three  milk  wells  on  each  side.  The  veins  on 
the  udder  are  also  very  prominent. 


SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE      55 


8  o 


•5      O  -i  <N 

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<3 


56  DAIRY  FARMING 

be  familiar  with  the  points  of  the  animal  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  18.  The  use  of  the  score  card  is  an  advantage  to  the 
beginner  as  a  means  of  impressing  the  points  to  be  taken  into 
account  and  their  relative  importance.  It  helps  to  make  the 
examination  systematic  and  prevents  one  from  forgetting 
points  that  should  be  observed.  The  value  of  the  score 
card  decreases  as  experience  is  gained.  Judging  in  the  show 
ring  is  done  entirely  by  comparison. 

The  score  card  given  on  page  77  is  in  use  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Dairy  Husbandry,  University  of  Missouri,  and  is 
an  attempt  to  give  the  points  that  are  important  in  teaching 
the  selection  of  dairy  cows  for  milk  production.  It  gives 
comparatively  little  attention  to  the  smaller  details  of  con- 
formation or  to  breed  type. 

SELECTION  BY  PERFORMANCE  RECORDS 

45.  Selection  by  Records.     While  it  is  often  necessary 
to  select  cows  by  appearances  when  buying,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  follow  this  plan  after  the  animals  are  in  the  herd.     A 
more  business-like  plan  is  to  keep  a  record  of  production  for 
each  individual  in  order  that  the  unprofitable  animals  may 
be  known  and  rejected.     The  records  to  be  kept  will  depend 
to  some  extent  upon  the  use  made  of  the  milk.     If  it  is  sold 
by  quantity  regardless  of  quality,  then  the  total  production 
is  the  important  fact.     If  the  price  of  milk  is  based  upon  the 
butter-fat,  both  the  quantity  and  the  quality  need  to  be 
known. 

46.  Overrating  the  Importance  of  Rich  Milk.      A    com- 
mon mistake  in  judging  cows  by  records  is  attaching  too  much 
importance  to  the  percentage  of  fat.      The  cow  that  produces 
the  richest  milk  does  not  necessarily  give  the  largest  amount 
of  fat,  nor  does  it  follow  that  she  is  the  most  economical  pro- 


SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE      57 


dueer.  It  is  the  total  amount  of  fat  that  counts  where  fat 
is  the  basis  of  market  value.  Figures  selected  from  accurate 
rec<  rds  kept  by  the  author  show  the  relation  between  the 
yield  of  milk,  the  percentage  of  fat,  and  the  total  fat  yield. 

TAT.LE  12. —  RICH   MILK   vs.    HIGH   FAT   PRODUCTION    FOR    THE 

YEAR 


BREED 

YIELD  MILK 

AVERAGE  PER  CENT 
FAT 

TOTAL  FAT 
YIELD 

Pounds 

Pounds 

ey 

2,796 

6.29 

176 

ey    

3,188 

5.31 

169 

13,895 

4.90 

681 

ey    

2,849 

4.42 

126 

stein      

18,405 

3.36 

618 

stein 

6  387 

3  26 

208 

stein      

26,861 

2.76 

741 

Jen 
Jen 
Jen 


These  figures  show  that  the  highest  percentage  of  fat  is  often 
accompanied  by  a  low  total  yield.  On  the  other  hand  a  low 
percentage  of  fat  may  go  with  either  a  high  or  a  low  milk  yield. 
The  figures  given,  which  are  some  of  the  extremes  taken 
from  the  records  of  a  large  herd,  also  indicated  clearly  that 
the  amount  of  milk  varies  much  more  than  the  percentage  of 
fat.  For  this  reason  it  is  far  more  important  to  know  how 
much  milk  a  cow  gives  than  to  know  its  richness.  If  all  the 
animals  in  a  herd  belong  to  the  same  breed,  it  is  about  three 
times  as  important  to  know  the  quantity  as  it  is  to  have 
records  of  the  richness,  even  where  milk  is  sold  by  the  fat 
content.  For  this  reason  the  keeping  of  individual  records 
of  cows  should  always  begin  with  the  use  of  the  scales.  The 
cow  owner  should  keep  the  records  by  weight  and  not  by 
measure,  and  become  accustomed  to  thinking  of  milk  yields 
in  terms  of  weights. 


58 


DAIRY  FARMING 


Three  things  should  be  known  in  order  that  the  relative 
profits  of  each  animal  may  be  calculated.  These  are  the 
amount  of  milk,  the  percentage  of  fat,  and  the  cost  of  feed 
consumed.  When  comparing  individual  animals  these  factors 
rank  in  importance  in  the  order  given. 
While  cows  should  be  fed  according  to 
their  production,  it  is  not  generally 
practical  to  keep  an  individual  feed 
record  of  each.  The  best  plan  on  the 
farm  is  to  know  the  cost  of  feeding  the 
entire  herd  and  the  total  income  above 
feed,  and  then  make  such  calculations 
as  may  seem  necessary  to  determine 
whether  certain  low-producing  cows 
should  be  kept. 

47.  Complete  Milk  Records.  The 
most  satisfactory  plan  of  keeping  records 
is  to  weigh  the  'milk  of  each  cow  daily. 
This  does  not  require  much  extra  time 
when  proper  arrangements  are  made. 
The  experience  of  every  one  who  has 
tried  it  is  that  no  time  spent  on  the  farm 

good  » 

pays  better.  A  spring  balance,  graduated 
to  pounds  and  tenths,  should  be  provided 
and  placed  at  a  point  convenient  for  the 
milkers  with  the  milk  sheet  close  at  hand. 

The  advantages  of  daily  weighing  may  be  summed  up  as 

follows : 

1.  It  makes  it  possible  to  reject  the  unprofitable  cows. 

2.  Makes   possible   economic   feeding.     Individual   cows 
should   be  fed  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  milk  they 
produce. 


FIG.  19. —A 
scale  for  weighing  milk. 
The  second  pointer  is 
set  to  read  zero  when 
the  empty  pail  is  at- 
tached. 


SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE      59 

3.  Enables  the  herdsman  to  detect  sickness.  Often  the 
firsi  indication  that  a  cow  is  out  of  condition  is  seen  on  the 
milk  sheet.  -  . 

4  Makes  it  possible  to  judge  of  the  work  of  different 
milicers. 

5.  Creates  interest  among  the  milkers  that  results  in  better 
woi  k  on  their  part. 

When  milk  records  are  kept  in  this  form  it  is  recommended 
tha;  a  sample  covering  two  or  three  days  be  taken  for  a 
Babcock  test.  This  sample  is  tested  for  fat,  and  the  result 
considered  the  average  for  the  month. 

Some  dairymen  weigh  the  milk  on  the  first  and  fifteenth 
of  each  month  or  at  other  stated  intervals.  From  these 
weights  the  yearly  production  may  be  estimated  fairly  ac- 
curately, but  the  other  advantages  of  daily  weighing  are 
enough  to  make  daily  weighing  preferable.  In  large  herds 
there  is  no  way  for  the  manager  to  keep  close  track  of  the 
business  except  by  daily  weighing. 

48.  Taking  Samples  for  Testing.  Where  many  cows 
are  in  milk,  the  most  convenient  way  of  taking  a  sample  is 
with  a  sampling  tube.  If  a  tube  is  not  at  hand,  a  satisfactory 
sample  may  be  prepared  by  taking  equal  quantities  of  milk 
from  each  milking  with  a  very  small  dipper  or  spoon,  and 
placing  them  in  a  jar.  The  milk  should  be  well  stirred  be- 
fore the  sample  is  taken.  Pint  glass  jars  with  tightly  fitting 
covers  are  used  to  hold  the  samples.  One  is  provided  for 
each  cow  and  is  marked  with  her  name  or  number.  Ex- 
cept in  very  cold  weather  some  preservative  is  used  to  keep 
the  milk  from  souring  before  it  is  tested.  For  this  purpose 
formalin,  which  may  be  purchased  at  any.  drug  store,  is  best. 
Tea  drops  is  sufficient  to  keep  a  sample  for  several  days. 
The  sample  when  complete  is  tested  with  the  Babcock  test* 


60 


DAIRY  FARMING 


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SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE      61 

Th(  reading  gives  the  butter- fat  per  100  pounds  of  milk. 
When  butter  is  made,  some  curd,  salt,  and  considerable 
water  remain  with  the  fat  to  meke  up  normal  marketable 
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by  ibout  one-sixth  and  may  be  estimated  if  desired  by  add- 
ing this  amount  to  the  fat. 

49.  Averaging  Tests.     A  common  mistake  results  from 
averaging  tests.     A  direct  average  of  the  tests  made  for  a 
certain  cow  each  month  during  the  year  will  not  be  a  fair 
avc  rage  test  of  the  total  amount  of  milk  produced  during 
the  year  by  this  animal.     This  results  from  the  fact  that 
the  amount  of  milk  represented  by  each  test  is  not  the  same. 
To  find  the  true  average  test  for  the  year  the  total  fat  yield 
for  the  period  covered  by  the  tests  must  be  divided  by  the 
total  yield  of  milk.     The  same  method  must  be  used  in  get- 
ting the  average  test  for  the  herd. 

50.  Permanent  Records.    Many  who  begin  keeping  records 
do  not  make  much  of  a  success  on  account  of  not  having  a 
suitable  form  for  a  permanent  record.     Fig.  22  is  a  form 
that  has  been  used  with  good  satisfaction  by  the  author  for 
a  number  of  years. 

Using  a  blank  book,  a  page,  may  be  ruled  for  each  cow. 
Space  sufficient  for  several  years  may  be  provided  in  this 
way  in  a  concise  form.  In  pure-bred  herds  the  pedigree  and 
records  of  offspring  may  be  put  on  the  page  opposite  the 
milk  records. 

51.  Cow-testing     Associations.       Keeping     records,     es- 
pecially of  a  large  herd,  involves  considerable  attention  to 
details.     To  provide  for  this,  cooperative  cow-testing  associ- 
ations have  been  established  in  many  places.     This  plan 
originated  in  Denmark  in  1895,  and  the  number  of  associ- 
ations has  since  increased  with  great  rapidity.     At  present 


62 


DAIRY  FARMING 


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SF LECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE 


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64  DAIRY  FARMING 

over  400  associations  are  in  operation  in  that  country  and 
probably  an  equal  number  in  other  countries  of  Europe. 

These  associations  are  formed  by  groups  of  farmers  own- 
ing from  500  to  1000  cows.  A  man  is  employed  who  goes 
from  farm  to  farm  spending  a  day  at  each.  He  weighs  the 
milk  from  each  cow  and  tests  it  for  fat  content.  He  cal- 
culates the  yield  of  each  cow  for  the  month,  the  cost  of  feed, 
and  income  above  feed  cost.  He  also  advises  the  farmer 
as  far  as  possible  regarding  methods  of  feeding  and  other 
details.  The  cost  is  usually  from  $1  to  $1.50  per  cow  each 
year.  In  a  few  cases  in  the  United  States  the  man  who  does 
the  testing  also  keeps  a  full  set  of  cost  accounts  for  the  farm. 

52.  Advanced  Registry.  One  of  the  important  factors 
in  the  improvement  of  dairy  cattle  is  the  system  of  advanced 
registration  as  conducted  by  the  associations  representing 
the  different  dairy  breeds.  The  ordinary  registration  of 
animals  insures  the  purity  of  their  breeding,  but  does  not 
indicate  their  individual  merits.  Advanced  registration 
gives  an  accurate  record  of  the  production.  Cows  must  be 
registered  in  the  herdbook  before  the  tests  are  made.  If 
the  production  reaches  or  exceeds  a  certain  standard,  they 
are  registered  again  in  another  series.  This  is  called  advanced 
registration.  The  weighing  of  the  milk  and  the  testing  for 
fat  are  done  by  representatives  of  the  experiment  station 
in  the  state  where  the  cow  is  owned.  This  insures  an  ac- 
curate record  made  by  a  disinterested  person. 

Many  changes  in  the  rules  and  requirements  have  been 
made  for  the  various  breeds  since  the  system  was  begun  in 
1890.  At  present  the  standards  set  by  the  different  breeds 
are  not  uniform,  and  occasional  changes  are  made,  so  it  is 
necessary  for  a  breeder  of  pure-bred  cattle  to  become  familiar 
with  the  rules  and  practices  governing  his  breed  at  the  time. 


SELECTION  AND   IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE     65 

In  general  it  may  be  said,  that  while  formerly  most  of  the  tests 
made  covered  seven  days  only,  now  all  the  tests  except  for 
Hoi  steins  cover  a  full  year.  Where  the  year  test  is  made, 
the  owner  weighs  the  milk  each  milking  and  the  experiment 
stai  ion  man  weighs  and  tests  it  for  fat  two  days  each  month. 
Th<  average  percentage  of  fat  for  the  two  days  is  taken  as  the 
average  for  the  month.  The  Holstein  breeders  still  use  the 
seven-day  plan  most  extensively,  although  many  year  tests  are 
als(  made. 

Where  a  seven-day  test  is  made,  a  two-year-old  cow  must 
produce  8  pounds  of  fat  for  advanced  registration.  The 
amount  required  increases  with  the  age  of  the  cow.  A 
five-year-old  must  produce  12  pounds  or  more  of  fat  to  be 
entered.  The  minimum  for  a  year  varies  from  214  to  250 
pounds  of  fat  with  the  several  breeds  for  two-year-olds,  and 
for  mature  cows  varies  from  322  to  360  pounds. 

The  great  value  of  the  advanced  registration  system  is  the 
possibility  it  affords  of  putting  the  selection  of  breeding 
animals  upon  a  sound  basis.  In  selecting  a  male  for  breed- 
ing purposes,  the  pedigrees  of  its  ancestors  form  about  the 
only  basis  for  judgment  as  to  the  probable  character  of  its 
offspring.  If  the  records  show  the  production  of  each  cow 
in  the  pedigree,  it  becomes  possible  to  judge  the  value  of  the 
animal  fairly  accurately.  Advanced  registration  is  un- 
questionably the  strongest  factor  now  in  operation  for  the 
rapid  improvement  of  dairy  cattle.  The  great  mass  of  dairy 
cattle  are  not,  and  need  not  be,  registered  animals,  and  hence 
are  not  eligible  to  advanced  registration.  However,  the 
system  is  equally  valuable  for  grades,  since  improvement  is 
transmitted  to  grade  herds  by  the  pure-bred  sires.  The 
addresses  of  the  different  breed  associations  are  given  on  page 
289.  Further  information  can  be  obtained  from  them. 


66 


DAIRY  FARMING 


The  following  list  includes  the  cows  having  fat  records 
of  950  pounds  or  more  in  a  year  up  to  April  1,  1916  : 


NAME  OF  Cow 

BREED 

MILK  IN 
1  YEAR 

FAT  IN 
1  YEAR 

STATE  IN 
WHICH  OWNED 

Duchess  Skylark  Ormsby 

Holstein 

27,762 

1205 

Minn. 

Finderne  Pride  Johanna 

Rue 

Holstein 

28,404 

1176 

N.  J. 

Finderne  Holingen  Fayne 

Holstein 

24,613 

1116 

N.  J. 

Murne  Cowan  .... 

Guernsey 

24,008 

1098 

Ohio 

Ona  Button  DeKol    .     . 

Holstein 

26,761 

1076 

May  Rilma 

G  uernsey 

19,673 

1073 

Penn. 

Banostine  Belle  DeKol 

Holstein 

27,404 

1058 

Ohio  ' 

Pontiac  Clothilde  DeKol  2d 

Holstein 

25,318 

1017 

N.  Y. 

Sophia    19th    of    Hood 

Farm    . 

Jersey 

17,558 

999 

Mass. 

High-Lawn  Hartog  De- 

Kol 

Holstein 

25,592 

998 

Ohio 

Colantha  4th's  Johanna 

Holstein 

27,432 

998 

Wis. 

Spermfield  Owl's  Eva     . 

Jersey 

16,457 

993 

Mass. 

Lothian  Maggie  DeKol  . 

Holstein 

27,968 

991 

Ohio 

Maple     Crest     Pontiac 

Flora  Hartog     .     .     . 

Holstein 

25,106 

986 

Ohio 

Milanhurst  America  De- 

Kol 

Holstein 

26,433 

985 

N.  Y. 

Crown  Pontiac  Josey 

Holstein 

28,752 

982 

N.  Y. 

Maple      Crest     Pontiac 

Spotted  Annie   . 

Holstein 

21,393 

981 

Ohio 

Pearl  Longfield  DeKol   . 

Holstein 

28,050 

972 

Wis. 

Caroline  Paul  Parthenea 

Holstein 

25,073 

967 

Wis. 

Eminent's  Bess      .     .     . 

Jersey 

18,783 

963 

Mich. 

Daisy  Grace  DeKol 

Holstein 

21,718 

963 

Ohio 

Finderne  Mutual  Fayne 

Holstein 

22,150 

961 

N.  J. 

Spotswood  Daisy  Pearl 

Guernsey 

18,603 

957 

Ohio 

Lily  of  Willowmoor   .     . 

Ayrshire 

22,596 

956 

Wrash. 

Jacoba  Irene     .... 

Jersey 

17,253 

953 

111. 

Tilly  Alcartra  .... 

Holstein 

30,451 

951 

Cal. 

53.  Relation  of  Age  of  Cow  to  Yield  and  Richness  of 
Milk.  Under  ordinary  farm  conditions  the  dairy  cow  fresh- 
ens the  first  time  at  from  24  to  30  months  of  age.  On  an 


SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE         67 


S 


68 


DAIRY  FARMING 


average  the  production  of  milk  for  the  lactation  period  in- 
creases each  year  until  the  cow  is  about  five  years  old,  after 
which  the  production  remains  fairly  constant  until  the 
animal  reaches  at  least  11  or  12  years. 

On  the  average  a  well-grown  two-year-old  may  be  expected 
to  produce  70  per  cent,  a  three-year-old  80  per  cent,  and  a  four- 
year-old  90  per  cent  of  the  milk  and  fat  that  she  will  pro- 


5  7500 

LU 

>- 

£  7000 

o_ 

M 

rd  6500 


i 

>-  5500 
5000 


\ 


3 


11   12 


5.00  £ 

t— 

4.50  5 
o 

5 

4.00  of 


56789 
LACTATION  PERIOD 

FIG.  24.  —  Influence  of  age  on  yield  of  milk  and  percentage  of  fat, 
averages  for  six  Jersey  cows  for  twelve  years. 

duce  when  mature.  The  highest  production  for  a  year  may 
come  anywhere  between  the  4th  and  llth  year.  Two-year- 
olds  that  are  not  well  grown  may  not  give  over  half  as  much 
as  when  mature.  If  a  cow  continues  to  breed,  her  milk 
flow  usually  shows  little  decline  until  she  is  12  years  old  and 
sometimes  even  older.  Probably  the  majority  of  dairy  cattle 
are  rejected  from  the  herd  on  account  of  failure  to  breed, 
or  from  udder  troubles  before  the  effect  of  advancing  years  can 
be  observed  to  have  had  any  effect  upon  the  milk  production. 


SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE      69 

The  richness  of  milk  is  less  affected  by  age  than  is  the  quan- 
tity. The  average  fat  content  remains  practically  constant 
from  year  to  year  except  that  after  the  cow  is  eight  or  nine 
years  old  the  percentage  of  fat  always  declines  slowly  and 
gradually  with  advancing  years.  A  Jersey  cow,  for  example, 
thai  averages  5.0  per  cent  fat  when  in  her  prime  will  decline 
to  ii  bout  4.5  per  cent  when  12  to  15  years  of  age.  The  fol- 


5.00 


0   20  40   60  80  100  120  140  160  180  200  220  240 
DAYS  IN  MILK 


.00 


FIG.  25.  —  Influence  of  the  advance  in  lactation  period  upon  the  milk 
yield  and  fat  content,  averages  for  ten  mature  cows  and  ten  two-year-old 
heifers. 


lowing  gives  the  average  percentages  of  fat  by  lactation 
periods  for  four  Jerseys  the  records  of  which  are  complete 
for  9  years. 


Lactation  period  .     1 
Per  cent  fat  .  4.8 


23456789 
4.82   4.96   4.64   4.62   4.62   4.57  4.49  4.39 


SELECTION  OF  A  BULL 

54.  The  Selection  of  the  Bull.  The  successful  develop- 
ment of  a  dairy  herd  depends  more  upon  the  selection  of  the 
bull  than  on  any  other  one  thing,  unless  it  be  the  proper 
culling  out  of  inferior  cows.  One-half  the  inheritance  of  each 
young  animal  in  the  herd  comes  from  the  bull,  and  for  this 
reason  his  influence  on  the  herd  is  far  greater  than  is  that  of 


70 


DAIRY  FARMING 


one  cow  who  will  have  at  most  only  a  few  daughters.  This 
is  the  basis  of  the  old  but  true  saying,  "  the  bull  is  half  the 
herd." 

The  main  opportunity  for  improvement  in  a  native  or 
mediocre  herd  is  by  using  a  good  sire.     For  example,  one 


FIG.  26.  —  An  excellent  three-quarters-bred  cow,  showing  what  a  pure- 
bred sire  can  do  in  two  generations.  The  grandmother  of  this  cow  was 
a  rather  poor  milker.  She  herself  produced  in  nine  years,  beginning 
when  she  was  two  years  old,  96,800  pounds  of  milk  and  3814  pounds  of 
butter.1 


bull  might  be  the  sire  of  20  daughters  in  a  herd  in  one  year. 
If  the  dams  be  capable  of  producing  only  200  pounds  of  fat 
yearly,  and  if  the  sire  represents  a  breed  or  strain  the  cows 
of  which  are  capable  of  producing  350  pounds  of  fat  per  year, 
it  is  evident  that,  if  the  daughters  averaged  only  half  way 
between,  there  would  be  an  increase  of  75  pounds  per  cow 

1  The  Cornell  Reading-courses,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  54,  p.  53. 


SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE      71 

am  i  ually .  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  to  find  even  greater 
.differences  than  this  in  actual  practice. 

The  first  cross  of  improved  blood  makes  the  offspring  one- 
hal ',  the  second,  three-fourths,  the  third,  seven-eighths  of 
the  same  blood  as  the  improved  breed.  The  continued  use 
of  pure-bred  sires  of  the  same  breed  for  10  to  15  years  will 
change  a  scrub  herd  until  it  will  have  essentially  the  same 
characteristics  as  the  improved  breed.  The  careful  breeder 
gives  a  great  deal  of  thought  to  the  selection  of  the  sire  for 
his  herd.  The  more  skilled  the  breeder,  the  greater  the  care 
taken  in  this  respect.  Almost  any  pure-bred  bull  will  im- 
prove a  scrub  herd,  but  only  the  bull  of  the  best  inheritance 
wi'l  increase  or  even  maintain  the  standard  of  a  highly  de- 
veloped herd. 

55.  Difference  in  Transmission  of  Dairy  Qualities  by 
Different  Bulls.  There  is  a  wide  variation  in  the  way 
dii'ferent  bulls  transmit  dairy  qualities.  This  fact  is 
illustrated  by  the  data  in  Table  13,  compiled  by  the  author 
from  the  records  of  the  Jersey  herd  owned  by  the  University 
of  Missouri.  This  herd  is  descended  from  three  cows.  Com- 
plete milk  and  butter-fat  records  for  21  years  make  these 
comparisons  possible.  The  comparisons  are  made  in  each  case 
between  the  production  of  the  daughters  of  the  various  sires 
used  and  the  dam  of  these  daughters.  The  figure  4381,  for 
example,  given  as  the  milk  production  of  the  daughters  of 
Missouri  Rioter  is  an  average  of  the  production  of  each 
daughter  which  is  found  in  turn  by  taking  the  average  of  all 
the  lactation  periods  of  the  particular  animal.  If  in  any  case 
the  daughter  had  only  three  or  fewer  lactation  periods,  the 
comparison  is  between  those  and  the  corresponding  periods 
for  the  dam. 


DAIRY  FARMING 


TABLE  13.  —  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  SIRE  SHOWN  BY  A  COMPARISON 
OF  THE  RECORDS  OF  DAUGHTERS  WITH  DAMS 


AVERAGES  FOR  ALL  LACTATION  PERIODS 


Dams 


Daughters 


Missouri  Rioter 

Milk  Yield        5380 

Per  cent  fat 4.35 

Yield  of  fat 234 

Hugorotus 

Milk  yield 4969 

Per  cent  fat 4.66 

Yield  of  fat 231 

Lome  of  Meridale 

Milk  yield 4559 

Per  cent  fat 4.85 

Yield  of  fat 221 

Missouri  Rioter  3rd 

Milk  yield 4775 

Per  cent  fat 4.98 

Yield  of  fat 238 

Minette's  Pedro 

Milk  yield 5321 

Per  cent  fat 5.03 

Yield  of  fat 268 

Daisy's  Prince  of  St.  Lambert 

Milk  yield 5362 

Per  cent  fat 5.07 

Yield  of  fat 269 

Brown  Bessie's  Registrar 

Milk  yield    .......  6069 

Per  cent  fat      ......  4.94 

Yield  of  fat 300 

Fairy's  Lad 

Milk  yield 6219 

Per  cent  fat 4.80 

Yield  of  fat .  299 


4381 
4.93 
216 

4576 
5.35 
245 

6050 
4.81 
291 

8005 
4.80 
384 

5376 
5.04 
271 

3932 

5.03 

198 

4607 
4.97 
229 

6169 
5.24 
323 


SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE      73 

M  any  interesting  comparisons  may  be  made  of  the  com- 
pare tive  values  of  these  bulls.  For  example,  the  daughters 
of  Lome  of  Meridale  averaged  1491  pounds  of  milk  more 
per  year  for  their  entire  lifetime  than  did  their  dams.  Eleven 
out  of  thirteen  were  superior  to  their  dams.  If  thirty 
daughters  of  this  bull  had  been  milked  in  one  herd,  their 
pro-  luction  would  have  exceeded  that  of  their  dams  by  44,730 
pounds  per  year.  At  $1.50  per  100  pounds  the  income  would 
be  s671  per  year  more  for  the  thirty  daughters  than  for  their 
mo1  hers.  If  the  animals  were  daughters  of  Missouri  Rioter, 
the  7  would  have  produced  999  pounds  each  less  than  their 
dams  or  a  total  of  29,970  pounds  less  milk  than  their  mothers 
in  i\  year.  At  $1.50  per  100  pounds  this  would  be  a  decrease 
of  S450.  It  would  then  make  a  difference  of  $1121  per  year 
whother  these  thirty  cows  be  daughters  of  Missouri  Rioter 
or  Lome  of  Meridale.  If  we  make  the  comparison  directly 
from  the  average  yield  of  the  daughters,  the  difference  would 
be  50,070  pounds  of  milk  per  year  worth  $751  at  $1.50  per 
100  pounds.  If  the  greatest  extremes  be  taken  for  compar- 
ison, as  Missouri  Rioter  3d  and  Missouri  Rioter,  the  dif- 
ference is  far  greater. 

56.  Methods  of  Selecting  a  Bull.  There  are  two  ways  of 
selecting  a  bull : 

1.  On  the  basis  of  his  pedigree  and  appearance. 

2.  From  the  records  of  his  daughters. 

The  pedigree  is  the  most  reliable  means  of  judging  the 
probable  value  of  a  young  bull.  The  system  of  advanced 
registration  now  in  use  makes  it  possible  to  obtain  reliable 
information  concerning  the  dairy  qualities  of  most  of  the 
registered  animals.  In  selecting  a  young  bull  one  should 
have  these  records  before  him.  The  points  to  be  considered 
are  especially  the  records  of  the  cows  that  are  the  close  an- 


74  DAIRY  FARMING 

cestors  of  the  bull.  It  should  also  be  observed  to  what 
extent  the  bulls  have  sired  high-producing  cows.  A  well- 
bred  bull  should  have  a  large  number  of  these  records  in  his 
pedigree. 

Many  persons  overvalue  an  animal  that  carries  a  small 
fraction  of  the  blood  of  one  noted  animal.  A  pedigree  that 
shows  moderately  good  parents  and  grandparents  is  better 
than  one  that  has  one  or  two  unusually  good  ancestors  and 
the  rest  mediocre.  A  noted  animal  farther  back  than  grand- 
parents has  no  very  great  significance  if  the  nearer  relatives 
are  not  good. 

It  is  doubtful  if  the  conformation  or  appearance  of  the 
bull  in  any  way  indicates  his  value  as  a  sire  of  superior  milk- 
ing cows.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  possible  to  judge  from  his 
conformation  to  some  extent  as  to  the  probable  type  of  his 
daughters.  The  only  really  safe  plan  for  the  owner  of  a 
highly  developed  herd  is  to  select  a  bull  having  daughters 
in  milk  so  that  he  may  know  the  characteristics  that  the 
bull  transmits  to  his  offspring.  This,  of  course,  can  only 
be  done  in  a  few  cases  but  is  always  advisable  when  possible. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  introduce  disease  by  obtaining 
a  bull  from  a  diseased  herd. 

57.  Cross-breeding.  Crossing  means  the  mixing  of  the 
blood  of  two  distinct  breeds.  It  is  a  practice  that  is  com- 
mon among  American  farmers.  The  object  sought  is  to 
combine  the  most  desirable  characteristics  of  the  two  breeds. 
The  practice  has  nothing  to  recommend  it.  Breeds  have 
been  developed  and  are  kept  pure  in  order  that  certain  char- 
acteristics may  be  transmitted  regularly  to  the  offspring. 
When  two  distinct  breeds  are  crossed  the  chain  of  inheritance 
is  broken  and  all  possible  combinations  of  the  characteristics 
of  the  two  breeds  appear.  For  example,  a  farmer  having 


SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE      75 


Jersey  cattle  may  become  dissatisfied  with  the  milk  yield 
and  cross  them  with  Holsteins,  expecting  to  combine  the 
Jersey  quality  of  rich  milk  with  tHe  Holstein  characteristic  of 
a  hirge  milk  yield.  Some  animals  may  show  this  combi- 
nation, while  just  as  many  may  inherit  a  low  yield  from  the 
Jersey  parent  and  a  low  percentage  of  fat  from  the  Holstein. 
Th<  proper  course  is  first  to  select  the  breed  that  best  meets 
the  requirements,  and  then  to  continue  along  this  line  unless 
it  i.-  found  after  sufficient  trial  that  a  serious  error  has  been 
ma<le. 

QUESTIONS    AND    PROBLEMS 

1.    Calculate  the  average  percentage  of  fat  for  the  year  for  two 
co^  3  making  the  following  records  by  months  : 


Cow  1 

Cow  2 

Pounds  Milk 

Per  Cent  Fat 

Pounds  Milk 

Per  Cent  Fat 

January.     .     . 

631 

3.4 

140 

4.5 

February 

600 

3.3 

0 

0 

March     .     .     . 

450 

3.8 

1040 

4.0 

April  .... 

440 

3.5 

1800 

3.3 

May  .... 

390 

4.0 

1850 

3.0 

June  .... 

280 

4.0 

1720 

3.2 

Julv    .... 

140 

4.3 

1500 

3.0 

August    . 

0    ' 

0 

1450 

3.0 

September  .     . 

950 

4.0 

1480 

3.2 

October  .     .     . 

1280 

3.2 

1200 

3.4 

November    . 

1356 

3.4 

1000 

3.8 

December    . 

1280 

3.7 

600 

4.0 

2.  Compare  the  multiplicity  of  breeds  in  one  neighborhood  in 
this  country  with  conditions  in  Europe. 

3.  What  advantages  are  there  in  having  one  breed  only  in  a 
community? 

4.  Are  there  any  breeders'  organizations  in  your  county  or  state? 
6.    Are   there  any  cow- testing  associations  in  your  county   or 

state?     If  so,   obtain  any  published  results   that  are  available. 


76 


DAIRY  FARMING 


What  differences  in  production  are  found  for  different  cows  in  the 
same  herd  ? 

6.  Define  lactation  period. 

7.  Do  you  know  any  farmer  in  the  region  who  weighs  the  milk 
from  each  cow  ? 

8.  Distinguish  between  rich  milk  and  high  yield  of  butter-fat. 

9.  How  is  milk  sold  in  this  region,  by  pound,  quart,  or  on  butter- 
fat  basis? 

10.  What  is  the  object  of  having  distinct  breeds  and  keeping 
them  pure? 

11.  What  is  the  distinction  between  a  grade  and  a  cross-bred 
animal  ? 

12.  Who  in  this  county  owns  any  advanced  registry  cows? 

13.  If  a  Jersey  heifer  calved  at  two  years  of  age  and  in  a  year  pro- 
duced 3000  pounds  of  milk,  testing  5  per  cent  fat,  how  much  milk 
can  she  be  expected  to  produce  when  mature  ?     What  will  her  yearly 
production  of  butter-fat  probably  be?     Compare  with  the  average 
for  experiment  station  herds.    Is  she  a  good  heifer? 

14.  Considering  the  proportion  of  fat  to  remain  the  same  when 
the  heifer  becomes  a  cow,  complete  the  following  table.     Consider 
the  average  butter-fat  production  of  the  experiment  station  herds  of 
the  breed  as  100  per  cent  when  filling  the  last  column.     Which  ones 
are  good  animals? 


BREED 

AGE  AT 
FRESHEN- 
ING 

PRODUCTION  IN  FOL- 
LOWING YEAR 

PROBABLE 
FAT  PRO- 
DUCTION 
PER  YEAR 

WHEN 

MATURE 

COMPARISON 
WITH  EX- 
PERIMENT 
STATION 
HERDS 

Milk 

Per 
Cent 
Fat 

Total 
Fat 

Holstein     .     . 

2£ 

7022 

3.7 

Holstein 

3 

7506 

3.8 

Holstein     .     . 

7 

8321 

3.4 

Jersey    .     .     . 

3 

3472 

4.9 

Jersey    .     .     . 

6 

5743 

5.1 

Guernsey   .     . 

3| 

4113 

5.2 

Guernsey   .     . 

5 

4223 

4.8 

Shorthorn  .     . 

3^ 

5342 

4.0 

15.    From  the  figures  given  on  page  17  does  there  seem  to  be  any 
danger  of  over-production  of  pure-bred  cattle  in  the  near  future  ? 


SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE      77 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  DAIRY  Cows 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

PER 

CENT 

Cow's  NUMBER 

1 

2 

3 

4 

INDICATING    EFFICIENCY    OF    MILK 
SECIETING     SYSTEM 
Udd  r  —  large,    evenly    quartered,    well 
h<  d  up,  not  meaty,  attachments  long, 
tc-,ts  squarely  placed,  and  of  conven- 

30 
10 

Milk    Veins  —  capacious,   entering  large 
w.  Us       

INDICATING      CAPACITY 

40 

1 

1 

23 

Jaw  —  •  wide  in  angle,  strong      .... 
Ban  el  —  deep,  wide,  long,  well  held  up, 
w'th  ribs  broad,  long,  far  apart,  slant- 
in  ;,  well  sprung         

INDICATING               CONSTITUTIONAL 
STR  ENGTH  AND  VIGOR 
Nos'ril  —  large,  expanded     

Eye  —  prominent,  bright,  intelligent 
Che  ;t  —  'wide,  deep      

Skeleton  —  developed    for    strength,    ol 
good  quality:    roomy,  long,   and  level 
at  pelvis      

Skin  —  loose  and  mellow  showing   good 

25 

1 
1 
4 

5 

2 
2 

Carriage  —  •  energetic,  prompt,  alert   . 

INDICATING    DAIRY    TEMPERAMENT 

Body  wedge  shape.     General  appearance 
angular   and   lean,    yet   clean-cut    anc 
noat  in  every  part     

BREED  TYPE 

Points    characteristic    of    the     particula 
breed,  such  as  size,  color,  temperament 
ruggedness  of  build,  etc  

SCORE 

15 

10 

10 

Fill  out  the  following,  showing  which  cow  you  would  place  first,  second,  etc.,  and  com- 
pare with  the  score  as  given  above.   If  milk  records  are  available  also,  compare  with  these. 


FIRST 


SECOND 


THIRD 


FOURTH 


Placim 


Score 


78    k  DAIRY  FARMING 


LABORATORY    EXERCISES 

3.  The  Parts  of  a  Cow.    Go  to  a  dairy  barn  or  otherwise  arrange 
to  have  a  cow  to  study.     Without  the  textbook  let  each  student 
point  out  each  of  the  parts  of  a  dairy  cow  as  shown  in  Fig.  18. 

4.  Make  out  a  Pedigree.     If  herdbooks  of  any  breed  are  avail- 
able, or  if  they  can  be  borrowed  from  a  breeder  in  the  region,  make  a 
pedigree.     If  advanced  registry  books  are  available,  fill  in  the  A.  R.  O. 
data.     If  different  students  take  different  animals,  the  pedigrees 
may  be  compared  to  see  which  animal  shows  the  best  breeding.     If 
any  farmer  in  the  region  has  advanced  registry  animals,  pedigrees 
of  these  may  be  worked  out,  and  the  same  animals  may  be  used  for 
judging,  so  that  comparisons  may  be  made  on  the  basis  of  both 
breeding  and  individuality. 

6.  Judging  Dairy  Cattle.  Go  to  a  dairy  barn  or  otherwise  arrange 
to  have  cows  to  study.  Using  a  score  card  like  the  one  on  page  77, 
make  comparisons  of  two  or  more  animals. 

Give  the  reasons  for  ranking  the  animals  in  the  order  given. 
Begin  the  reasons  with  the  most  important  difference  between  the 
animals  compared  and  give  all  the  leading  differences.  Make  the 
answers  terse  and  concise. 

6.  Weighing  Milk.  If  any  farmer  in  the  region  desires  to  cooper- 
ate with  the  school,  take  the  class  to  his  farm  and  get  the  method  of 
weighing  started  as  directed  on  page  58.  Test  the  milk,  and  com- 
plete the  records  monthly.  Feed  records  may  also  be  taken  by  a 
tnember  of  the  class  weekly  or  monthly.  A  still  better  exercise  for 
students  who  are  living  on  farms  is  to  have  them  keep  the  milk  rec- 
ords. 

COLLATERAL    READING 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  L.  H.  Bailey,  Vol.  Ill,  pp. 
26-43,  51,  303-306,  308. 

The  Dairy  Herd,  Its  Foundation  and  Management,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  55. 

Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,  C.  H.  Eckles,  pp.  17-26 ;  116- 
174. 


CHAPTER  4 

MANAGEMENT    OF   DAIRY   CATTLE 
C.  H.  ECKLES 

58.  Decline  of  Milk  Production  in  Summer.     Milk  pro- 
due  tion  of  the  average  herd  falls  off  rapidly  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  summer.     It  is  not  uncommon  for  the  amount 
of  milk  sold  by  a  farmer  in  August  to  be  no  more  than  half 
tha  t  marketed  during  June.     At  the  season  when  this  rapid 
decline  of  milk  occurs  the  animals  are  greatly  annoyed  by 
flies.     The  flies  are  often  looked  upon  as  the  main  cause  of 
this  decline.     There  are  good  reasons  for  believing  that  the 
eff(  ct  of  the  fly  is  overestimated.     Where  soiling  or  grain 
feeding  is  practiced,  the  decline  at  this  season  is  little  more 
than  the  normal  one  for  the  stage  of  lactation  represented 
by  the  cows.     The  main  cause  for  the  decreased  production 
at  this  time  of  the  year  is  undoubtedly  the  failure  of  the 
cows  to  eat  a  sufficient  amount  of  feed.     This  lack  of  feed 
may  come  from  poor  pasture  due  to  dry  weather,  or  it  may 
result  from  the  fact  that  the  cows  do  not  graze  sufficiently 
because  of  the  hot  weather  and  the  annoyance  of  flies.     The 
cow  is  sensitive  to  excessive  heat,  and  this  is  probably  in  most 
cases  a  stronger  factor  than  the  flies.     The  main  precaution 
to  be  observed  is  to  make  certain  that  the  animals  have 
plenty  of  feed  easily  accessible. 

59.  Protection  from  Flies.     Cattle  in  this   country  are 
troubled  most  by  two  kinds  of  flies,  known  as  the  stable 
fly  and  the  horn  fly.     The  stable  fly  resembles  the  house  fly 

79 


80  DAIRY  FARMING 

except  that  its  mouth  parts  enable  it  to  bite  while  the  house 
fly  cannot.  The  horn  fly  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  was 
introduced  into  this  country  about  1886.  It  is  recognized 
from  its  habit  of  feeding  with  wings  spread,  and  it  usually 
travels  in  swarms.  It  is  also  seen  at  times  gathered  around 
the  base  of  the  horn. 

Many  of  the  flies  that  annoy  cattle  are  hatched  in  manure. 
The  first  precaution  to  be  observed,  in  any  attempt  to  re- 
duce the  number,  is  to  avoid  an  accumulation  of  manure  where 
it  will  remain  moist,  especially  near  the  barn.  Horse  manure 
is  preferred  by  these  pests,  but  they  breed  in  any,  even  that 
dropped  in  the  fields  by  the  animals.  No  practical  method 
has  been  devised  that  will  do  more  than  reduce  the  number 
of  flies  very  slightly.  Large  fly  traps  in  the  barn  have  been 
used  with  some  success.  Screens  on  the  barn  are  generally 
found  worse  than  useless  since  the  flies  accompany  the 
animals  into  the  barn  and  then  remain  in  the  barn  if  the  win- 
dows are  screened. 

Milk  rooms  should  always  be  protected  by  screens,  on 
account  of  the  serious  danger  of  flies  carrying  germs  of 
human  diseases  into  the  milk. 

In  recent  years  a  great  many  preparations  designed  to 
repel  flies  have  been  placed  on  the  market.  These  fly  re- 
pellents consist  chiefly  of  some  coal  tar  products  with  the 
addition  of  fish  oil,  resin,  or  pine  tar.  Results  at  three 
experiment  stations  go  to  show  that  there  is  little  value  in 
using  these  preparations.  If  they  are  applied  daily,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  keep  the  flies  away  fairly  well,  but  it  is  questionable 
whether  the  animal  does  not  suffer  more  from  having  the 
pores  of  its  skin  closed  up  with  the  oily  substance  than  it 
does  from  the  insect.  There  is  no  appreciable  increase  in  the 
milk  flow  when  these  substances  are  used. 


MANAGEMENT    OF   DAIRY    CATTLE  81 

60.  Dehorning.  There  are  many  reasons  for  dehorning 
the  animals  in  the  ordinary  business  herd.  Horns  are 
responsible  for  frequent  injuries  and  serve  no  useful  pur- 
pose. Dehorned  cattle  may  be  housed  in  much  smaller 
space  and  are  fed  and  watered  together  with  much  more 
convenience.  As  a  matter  of  safety  it  is  well  to  dehorn 
bulls.  There  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  any  bad  effects 
follow.  It  is  not  advisable  to  dehorn  animals  that  are  to 
be  used  for  exhibition  purposes.  While  animals  without 
horns  are  occasionally  found  in  the  show  ring,  they  are  at 
a  disadvantage. 

Calves  may  be  dehorned  successfully  by  using  caustic 
poiash  (potassium  hydrate)  when  they  are  a  few  days  old. 
The  hair  is  clipped  away  from  the  small  buttons  which  later 
develop  into  horns.  The  caustic  potash  is  moistened  and 
rubbed  on  the  spot  until  the  skin  bleeds  slightly,  or  is  just 
ready  to  bleed.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  too  much. 
If  sufficient  potash  has-been  applied,  a  dent  will  be  left  in 
the  skull  after  a  few  days  and  no  horns  will  ever  develop. 
Persons  who  have  had  considerable  experience  sometimes 
usc^  this  method  on  calves  that  are  nearly  a  month  old,  but 
it  is  best  done  during  the  first  week,  after  that  more  skill 
is  required.  A  few  cases  have  been  reported  where  so  much 
water  was  used  that  it  ran  down  into  the  eyes  and  put  them 
out.  One  man  used  so  much  potash  that  holes  were  eaten 
through  the  skull  and  the  calves  killed.  Such  accidents  are 
inexcusable.  In  using  potassium  hydrate  wrap  paper  around 
the  end  of  the  stick  to  prevent  injuring  the  fingers. 

After  an  animal  is  at  least  one  year  of  age,  it  may  be  de- 
horned by  using  the  saw  or  special  dehorning  clippers.  De- 
horning with  the  saw  or  clippers  should  be  done  in  cool 
weather  in  the  spring  or  autumn. 

G 


82  DAIRY  FARMING 

61.  Marking  Calves.  In  raising  pure-bred  cattle  it  is 
important  that  some  system  of  marking  be  adopted  which 
will  make  it  possible  to  identify  the  individuals.  This  is 
more  important  with  dairy  cattle  than  with .  beef  breeds, 
since  the  calves  are  taken  away  from  the  mothers  soon  after 
birth.  A  number  of  systems  of  markings  are  in  use.  One 
plan  is  to  insert  tags  in  the  ears.  There  are  many  forms  of 
these.  They  are  numbered,  and  if  desired  the  name  of  the 
owner  is  included.  The  general  objection  to  this  system  is 
the  possibility  that  the  tags  may  be  torn  out.  Another  plan 
is  to  place  a  numbered  brass  tag  on  a  strap  about  the  neck. 
This  is  removed  when  the  animal  is  larger  and  well  known 
to  the  owner. 

The  tattoo  system  is  also  used  with  success.  This  con- 
sists in  printing  letters  or  numbers  in  the  skin  of  the  ear  with 
India  ink.  The  instruments  are  so  made  that  a  combina- 
tion of  letters  or  figures  may  be  used.  These  tattoo  marks 
when  properly  applied  are  permanent  and  do  not  disfigure 
the  animal.  They  cannot  be  seen  at  a  distance,  but  make 
it  possible  to  positively  identify  the  animal.  This  system  is 
the  most  satisfactory  with  breeds  having  light- colored  skin. 

The  system  followed  by  the  writer  is  to  place  a  strap  bear- 
ing a  number  on  a  brass  tag  around  the  neck  of  the  calf  before 
it  is  taken  from  its  mother.  This  strap  is  left  on  until  the 
animal  is  nearly  mature.  The  tattoo  mark  is  then  put  on 
the  ear. 

The  color  markings  of  Holsteins,  as  shown  on  the  diagram 
of  the  application  for  registry  or  on  the  pedigree,  enable  one 
to  identify  these  animals.  But  ear  tags  or  other  marking 
systems  are  also  desirable  when  large  numbers  are  kept. 

62.  Shelter.  The  housing  of  the  dairy  cow  naturally 
depends  upon  climatic  conditions.  She  should  not  be  ex- 


MANAGEMENT    OF   DAIRY   CATTLE 


83 


po^ed  to  severe  cold  weather.  Cold  rains  and  snowstorms 
arc  especially  to  be  avoided.  The  most  favorable  temper- 
ature has  not  yet  been  experimentally  determined,  but  ob- 
servation teaches  that  a  barn  temperature  around  40  or  50° 
F.  is  as  favorable  as  any.  In  cold  climates  the  cow  should 
remain  in  the  barn  during  the  cold  season  except  for  a  few 
hoars  during  the  middle  of  the  day  while  the  weather  is 
mild.  On  stormy  days  or  during  extreme  cold  she  had  better 
be  kept  inside  constantly.  Many  barns  in  such  regions  are 
kept  too  warm.  In  warm  climates  it  is  not  necessary  to 
house  the  animal  so  closely  as  this.  An  abundance  of  fresh 
air  is  as  necessary  for  the  health  of  the  cow  as  for  any 
other  animal.  This  should  be  supplied  by  proper  venti- 
lal  ion  and  not  through  the  walls 
of  an  improperly  constructed 
barn,  or  by  leaving  the  cow  out- 
doors exposed  to  severe  weather. 
Excessively  warm  weather  is  far 
more  injurious  to  the  cow  than 
moderately  cold.  There  is  no 
practical  means  of  making  the 
animal  comfortable  when  it  is 
too  hot.  For  this  reason  hot 
weather  and  warm  climates  are 
not  favorable  for  high  milk  pro- 
duction, especially  if  accompanied 

by  a  high  humidity.  FIG.  27.  —  Teaching  a  calf  to 

63.    Milking  the  Heifer.    If  the    lea(J.:  good   training  for   both 

parties. 

young  cow  is  properly  managed 

before  she  has  her  first  calf,  there  is  little  difficulty  in 
teaching  her  to  be  milked.  Calves  should  be  accustomed 
to  being  tied  when  small,  and  if  this  is  done  there  will  be  no 


84  DAIRY  FARMING 

\ 

trouble  from  tying  at  any  later  time.  Before  freshening, 
the  heifer  should  be  tied  for  a  month  or  more  in  the  stall 
where  she  is  to  stand  when  in  milk.  A  careful  man  should 
handle  her  and  take  care  not  to  excite  her.  It  is  especially 
necessary  to  use  patience  and  care  when  she  is  first  milked. 
64.  Methods  of  Milking.  There  is  a  great  difference  in 
the  efficiency  of  milkers.  One  man  may  get  20  per  cent  more 
milk  than  another  from  the  same  cow.  A  careless  milker 
may  dry  up  a  cow  within  a  few  months  while  a  good  milker 
may  keep  up  the  milk  flow  for  the  entire  year.  Men  who 
care  for.  cows  should  always  move  among  them  quietly  and 
not  startle  them  by  sudden  movements  or  loud  talking. 
The  cow  cannot  control  the  secretion  of  milk  by  her  will 
but  it  may  be  affected  by  excitement.  Anything  unusual, 
such  as  the  presence  of  a  dog  or  a  stranger  at  milking  time, 
will  cause  some  cows  to  give  less  milk.  Changing  milkers  is 
likely  ^o  result  in  a  loss  of  milk  for  a  few  milkings,  but  if 
the  new  milker  be  equally  proficient  the  cow  will  soon  return 
to  the  usual  amount.  However,  the  milkers  should  be 
changed  as  little  as  possible.  The  milking  should  be  done 
quickly  and  quietly.  If  the  cow  is  accustomed  to  eating 
grain  while  being  milked,  she  will  not  do  well  without  having 
it  every  time.  She  can  easily  become  accustomed  to  being 
milked  either  before  or  after  eating,  but  always  should  be 
treated  in  the  same  manner.  Care  should  be  taken  to  get 
all  the  strippings,  since  while  the  first  milk  drawn  may  con- 
tain as  low  as  1  per  cent  of  fat,  the  last  contains  from  6  to  9 
per  cent.  The  teats  should  always  be  dry  when  milked. 
Wetting  the  teats  is  all  too  common  but  it  is  a  filthy  practice. 
A  small  amount  of  vaseline  rubbed  on  the  hands  serves 
the  same  purpose  as  wetting  the  teats  and  is  not  at  all 
objectionable. 


MANAGEMENT    OF   DAIRY    CATTLE 


85 


o 


V 

Lead  teat  plug. 


65.  Hard-milking  Cows.  Some  cows  cause  considerable 
annoyance  because  they  milk  unusually  hard.  This  condi- 
tion, which  is  caused  by  a  strong  muscle  (sphincter  muscle) 
th;  t  closes  the  opening  of  the  teat,  can  be  remedied  by 
proper  treatment.  Instruments 
an  made  by  means  of  which  it  is 
possible  to  overcome  the  difficulty 
wi'h  no  danger  to  the  animal. 
In  most  cases  the  use  of  teat 
plugs  alone  is  sufficient.  These 
plugs,  which  are  made  of  rubber 
or  lead,  are  placed  in  the  teat 
duct  and  allowed  to  remain  there 
until  the  next  milking.  This  is 
continued  until  the  muscle  is  some- 
what relaxed  and  the  opening 
remains  larger.  In  severe  cases  a 
cutting  instrument  known  as  the 
teat  slitter  (bistoury)  is  used. 
This  operation  should  be  per- 
formed by  a  veterinarian  or  one 
having  experience  in  the  use  of 
such  instruments.  In  using  teat 

plugs,   milk   tubes,   Or   any  instru-     FIG.  28.  —  Instruments  used  in 
T  .   -,  .  i    •       ii  treating  hard-milking  cows. 

ments  which  are  inserted  in  the 

duct  of  the  udder,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  sterilize  the 
instruments  thoroughly  before  using  them,  for  if  germs  gain 
access  they  may  cause  serious  trouble.  A  two  per  cent 
solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  a  weak  solution  of  creolin  is 
suitable  for  disinfecting  instruments.  It  can  also  be  done 
by  boiling  them  in  water  just  before  using.  The  teats  should 
be  thoroughly  cleaned  before  inserting  any  instrument. 


Teat  slitter 
or  bistoury. 


Teat   expander. 


86  DAIRY  FARMING 

66.  Effect  of  Interval  between  Milkings.     If  the  cow  be 
milked  twice  a  day  at  twelve  hour  intervals,  there  is  usually 
no  marked  difference  between  the  night  and  morning  milk. 
If  the  periods  are  unequal,  the  larger  amount  of  milk  and  the 
poorer  quality  follow  the  longer  period.     Heavy-producing 
cows  and  all  that  are  being  handled  to  obtain  the  largest 
record  should  be  milked  three  times  a  day.     Few  cows  can 
produce  over  60  pounds  of  milk  with  two  milkings,  and  when 
75  to  80  pounds  per  day  is  reached,  the  production  will  sel- 
dom go  higher  unless  the  cow  is  milked  four  times  each 
twenty-four  hours.     Heavy-producing  cows  may  profitably 
be  milked  three  times  a  day.     With  cows  of  ordinary  ca- 
pacity the  increased  yield  is  not  sufficient  to  pay  for  the 
extra  labor.     A  cow  that  will  produce  60  pounds  per  day  with 
two  milkings  as  a  rule  will  increase  to  at  least  70  if  milked 
a  third  time.     The  richness  of  the  milk  of  heavy  milkers  is 
increased  somewhat  when  they  are  milked  more  than  twice 
per  day.     If  many  cows  in  the  herd  are  giving  over  50 
pounds  when  milked  twice  a  day,  it  will  pay  to  try  milking 
three  times. 

67.  Milking  Machines.     A  satisfactory  milking  machine 
has  long  been  one  of  the  greatest  needs  of  the  dairy  farmer. 
While  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  the  milking  machine  is  out 
of  the  experimental  stage,   still  it  seems  sufficiently  well 
developed  to  be  considered  a  commercial  success  at  the  pres- 
ent time.     It  is  thoroughly  demonstrated  that  by  its  use  a 
skilled  operator  can  do  as  good  work  as  the  average  milker. 
It  is  still  a  question  whether  the  amount  of  milk  obtained  dur- 
ing the  lactation  period  by  a  milking  machine  is  equal  to 
that  obtained  by  a  good  milker.     It  is  quite  certain  that  the 
cow  is  not  injured  by  the  use  of  the  milking  machine. 

Provided  the  machine  is  properly  cleaned  and  used,  the 


MANAGEMENT    OF   DAIRY    CATTLE  87 

sanirary  condition  of  the  milk  is  better  than  under  ordinary 
conditions,  but  with  careless  handling  of  the  machine  the 
milk  may  be  in  worse  sanitary  condition  than  that  produced 
by  1  and  milking.  So  far  the  milking  machine  seems  adapted 
only  to  herds  of  30  cows  or  more.  One  milker  with  a  suitable 
outfit  can  milk  from  25  to  30  cows  per  hour.  The  indica- 
tions are  that  the  use  of  the  milking  machine  will  be  widely 
extended  in  the  near  future.  As  a  result  many  more  large 
dairy  herds  will  be  kept.  The  labor  problem  is  at  present 
the  main  factor  in  the  way  of  maintaining  large  herds.  The 
proper  management  of  a  machine  requires  considerable 
mechanical  ability. 

68.  Cows  with  Leaky  Teats.     Some  cows  lose  a  portion 
of  the  milk  by  leakage  from  the  teats  before  milking.     No 
practical  remedy  has  been  devised.     If  conditions  warrant 
the  trouble,  the  cow  may  be  milked  three  times  a  day  or  the 
teat  opening  may  be  closed  after  the  milking  by  applying 
collodion. 

69.  Bloody  Milk.     Bloody  milk  is  much   more  common 
than  is  generally  supposed.     Traces  of  blood  are  often  found 
in  the  separator  bowl  after  milk  has  been  separated  although 
its  presence  was  not  suspected.     It  is  not  an  indication  of 
disease  or  any  unhealthy  condition  of  the  cow.     It  is  caused 
by  the  rupture  of  a  small  blood  vessel,  which  allows  the 
blood  to  escape  into  the  milk  ducts.     Sometimes  certain 
cows  have  this  trouble  for  several  months  but  more  often 
it  appears  only  once  or  twice.     It  cannot  be  prevented  or 
stopped  by  any  specific  treatment.     One  should  see  that 
the  cow  is  not  being  injured  in  the  udder  by  being  stepped 
on  by  cows  in  adjoining  stalls  or  by  any  other  cause.     As 
a  rule  the  cow  recovers  in  a  short  time  with  no  special  treat- 
ment. 


88  DAIRY  FARMING 

70.  Chapped  Teats.     Chapped  teats  may  occur  in  cold 
weather.     The  application  of  vaseline  for  a  few  times  at 
the  first  appearance  of  the  trouble  will  usually  check  and 
cure  it.     For  severe  cases  the  teats  should  be  thoroughly 
washed  and  softened  with  warm  water,  after  which  glycerite 
of  tannin  may  be  applied. 

71.  Warts  on  Teats.     These  are  often  troublesome  but 
usually  disappear  of  themselves.     They  may  be  treated  by 
applying  vaseline  or  olive  oil.     If  large,  they  may  be  cut  off 
with  a  pair  of  sharp  scissors  and  the  spot  touched  with  a 
stick  of  caustic  potash. 

72.  Bitter  Milk.     This  trouble  is  most  often  found  where 
one  or  two  cows  are  kept  to  provide  a  family  milk  supply. 
The  trouble  is  confined  mostly  to  cows  that  have  been  in 
milk  seven  months  or  more.     It  rarely  occurs  when  the  ani- 
mal is  receiving  green  feed.     The  milk  has  a  peculiar  taste, 
described  by  some  as  salty  but  more  often  as  bitter.     The 
taste  is  present  in  the  fresh  milk  but  it  seems  to  become  more 
noticeable  as  the  milk  stands.     The  cream  from  milk  of  this 
kind  churns  with  difficulty  and  sometimes  will  not  churn 
at  all. 

The  cause  of  this  trouble  and  a  remedy  for  it  cannot  be 
given  with  certainty.  It  most  frequently  occurs  when  the 
animal  is  overfed  with  grain.  The  only  treatment  that 
offers  promise  of  removing  the  trouble  is  to  reduce  the  grain 
feed  to  the  amount  actually  needed  by  the  animal,  or  pref- 
erably less,  for  a  while  and  to  give  two  or  three  doses  of 
1  to  1J  pounds  of  Epsom  salts  at  intervals  of  from  three  to 
four  days. 

73.  Kicking  Cows.     The  habit  of  kicking  is  due  usually 
to   wrong  management.      Cows   kick   at  first   from  either 
fear  or  pain.     If  not  properly  handled,  they  may  develop 


MANAGEMENT    OF   DAIRY    CATTLE  89 

the  habit.  Striking  a  cow  that  kicks  makes  her  worse. 
In  cjise  the  cow's  teats  are  sore,  use  vaseline,  or  in  severe 
cases,  use  a  milking  tube,  until  the  injury  can  be  healed.  If 
the  cow  is  afraid  handle  her  gently.  In  some  cases  gentle 
measures  will  not  work.  Some  old  cows  that  have  got 
into  the  habit  cannot  be  cured.  Such  animals  should  be 
tied  during  milking.  This  is  best  done  by  using  a  rather 
heavy  strap  with  a  buckle  and  a  loop.  The  strap  is  put 
around  one  leg  above  the  hock  and  the  end  drawn  through 
the  loop.  The  strap  is  then  put  around  the  other  leg  and 
buckled  so  the  two  legs  are  held  close  together.  The  cow 
soon  learns  to  stand  quietly  as  long  as  the  strap  is  in  place. 
74  Self-sucking  Cows.  This  habit  is  not  very  common 
but  it  is  difficult  to  break  up  when  once  it  is  acquired.  Oc- 
casionally one  cow  will  suck  another  one.  If  an  ordinary 
cow  contracts  the  habit,  the  best  plan  is  to  dispose  of  her. 
A  fairly  effective  treatment  seems  to  be  to  put  a  bull  ring  in 
the  cow's  nose  and  hang- a  second  ring  from  the  first.  The 
second  ring  can  generally  be  taken  off  after  a  time. 

75.  How  Long   Should  a  Cow  be   Dry?     Practically  all 
experienced  dairymen  agree  that  cows  should  be  dry  for  a 
period  before  freshening.     A  cow  will  produce  more  milk 
if  allowed  six  weeks  to  recuperate,  than  she  will  if  milked 
continuously.     Heavy  milk  production  is  a  severe  tax  upon 
an  animal.     A  cow  that  has  not  been  dry  for  a  short  time 
will  start  at  a  considerably  lower  level  of  milk  production 
than  will  one  that  has  had  a  chance  to  rest.     Under  ordinary 
conditions  six  weeks  is  sufficient,  but  if  a  cow  is  in  a  thin 
condition  it  is  better  to  make  the  period  longer. 

76.  Drying  up   a   Cow.     The  most  common  method  of 
drying  a  cow  is  to  lengthen  the  interval  between  milkings,  by 
at  first  omitting  one  milking  each  day.     After  a  few  days 


90  DAIRY  FARMING 

the  milk  is  drawn  only  once  in  two  days  until  the  secretion  is 
stopped.  There  is  less  danger  of  injuring  a  cow  in  drying 
her  up  than  is  generally  thought.  The  secretion  of  milk 
near  the  end  of  the  lactation  period  depends  largely  upon 
the  stimulation  of  the  nerves  in  milking  and  therefore  stops 
readily  if  this  stimulation  be  removed.  If  a  cow  is  produc- 
ing as  little  as  10  pounds  per  day,  milking  can  be  stopped  at 
any  time  with  no  possible  injury.  The  udder  will  fill  slightly 
for  the  first  few  days,  after  which  the  secreted  milk  is  ab- 
sorbed and  no  injury  follows.  If  this  plan  is  followed,  it  is 
best  not  to  draw  any  milk  after  once  stopping.  If  the  ani- 
mal is  producing  much  more  than  10  or  12  pounds  per  day, 
her  feed  should  at  first  be  reduced  for  a  few  days  and  the 
character  of  the  ration  changed  to  one  low  in  protein,  such 
as  timothy  hay,  with  little  or  no  grain.  As  soon  as  the  pro- 
duction of  milk  begins  to  drop  decidedly  it  is  safe  to  stop 
abruptly.  The  author  has  followed  this  plan  for  a  number 
of  years  with  high-producing  cows  without  the  slightest  injury 
in  any  case. 

77.  Milking  the  Cow  before  Calving.     It  is  the  practice 
of  some  to  milk  the  heavy  milkers  several  times  before  the 
birth  of  the  calf,  thinking  the  udder  may  be  injured.     As  a 
rule  this  is  not  a  good  practice.     It  increases  the  danger  of 
trouble  at  the  time  of  freshening  and  does  not  relieve  the 
congested  condition  of  the  udder  to  any  great  extent.     It  is 
only  advisable  with  the  heaviest  milkers  when  they    are 
suffering  greatly  from  the  distentiorr  of  the  udder. 

78.  Care  of  Cow  after  Calving.     The  vitality  of  the  cow 
is  low  after'  calving  and  she  should  be  treated    carefully. 
She  should  be  protected  from  cold  winds  and  severe  weather. 
Her  drinking  water  is  best  warmed  for  a  day  or  two  if  the 
weather  is  cold.     The  ration  for  the  first  few  days  should  be 


MANAGEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  91 

light  and  not  very  abundant.  A  bran  mash,  made  by  moisten- 
ing 1  >ran  with  warm  water,  is  well  adapted  as  a  grain  ration 
for  the  first  day.  If  the  udder  is  swollen  and  congested, 
the  i^rain  ration  should  be  increased  very  slowly  until  this 
condition  disappears.  As  a  rule  at  least  two  weeks  are  re- 
quired to  get  the  cow  on  a  full  ration.  No  alarm  need  be 
felt  i  f  the  udder  remains  hard  and  somewhat  congested  for  a 
few  lays  provided  milk  can  be  drawn  from  each  quarter. 

The  cow  should  be  watched  closely  for  the  first  48  hours 
for  symptoms  of  milk  fever.  This  is  most  likely  to  occur 
with  the  heaviest  producers  and  never  with  heifers  at  their 
first  freshening.  Every  manager  of  high-producing  cows 
should  become  familiar  with  the  symptoms  of  milk  fever 
and  have  the  apparatus  on  hand  to  treat  it  promptly. 

79.  Management  of  Young  Stock.     The  cheapest  way  to 
raise  young  stock  and  the  way  that  produces  the  most  vig- 
orous animals,  is  to  allow  them  to  run  loose  in  open  sheds 
and  tie  them  up  only  while  they  eat  their  grain  feed.     Some 
farmers  also  follow  this  system  with  milking  cows  with  good 
results.     The  system  is  best  adapted  to  regions  that  have  an 
abundance  of  straw  as  large  amounts  of  bedding  are  required. 

80.  Care   and   Management  of  the  Bull.     The  bull  calf 
should  be  fed  in  the  same  manner  as  a  heifer  of  the  same  age. 
He  should  always  be  well  fed  during  the  entire  period  of 
growth  as  an  undersized  animal  is  not  desirable.     As  a  winter 
ration  clover,  alfalfa,  or  other  legume  hay  is  best  adapted  to 
his  needs,  while  for  grain  a  mixture  of  corn  with  oats,  bran, 
or  oilmeal  is  excellent.     The  same  ration  that  is  fed  to  cows  in 
milk  may  be  used.     There  is  no  advantage  in  having  the 
young  bull  fat,  but  he  should  be  kept  at  least  in  moderate 
flesh.     When  the  roughage  is  of  good  quality  the  mature  bull 
requires  little  or  no  grain  to  keep  him  in  moderate  flesh. 


92  DAIRY  FARMING 

•  The  bull  should  not  be  allowed  to  run  loose  with  the  herd. 
He  should  be  kept  in  a  paddock  where  plenty  of  exercise  is 
possible.  A  ring  should  be  put  in  his  nose  at  the  age  of  about 
one  year.  A  bull  should  be  handled  carefully  and  firmly  at 
all  times.  Teasing  should  never  be  allowed.  He  does  not 
appreciate  petting  or  unnecessary  handling,  and  is  best  let 
alone  except  when  it  is  necessary  to  handle  him.  He  should 
be  handled  in  a  firm  manner  and  made  to  respect  his  keeper 
but  should  never  be  abused.  The  bull  of  a  dairy  breed  is 
more  likely  to  be  vicious  than  one  of  a  beef  breed  since  the 
former  are  much  more  active  and  nervous.  It  should 
always  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  bull  is  dangerous  and 
that  he  cannot  safely  be  trusted.  The  animal  should  be 
thoroughly  trained  for  tying  and  leading  when  a  calf.  He 
may  then  be  tied  or  led  at  any  time  later  even  if  handled  only 
at  long  intervals. 

The  main  mistake  made  in  handling  aged  bulls  is  in  hous- 
ing them  too  closely  without  exercise.  Plenty  of  exercise  is 
the  most  important  factor  in  preserving  the  vitality  of  a 
breeding  animal.  For  any  but  the  most  severe  climates  the 
best  housing  for  the  bull  during  all  seasons  of  the  year  is  a 
shed  protected  from  the  cold  winds  but  open  on  one  side. 
Some  exposure  to  the  weather  especially  during  the  cooler 
part  of  the  year  helps  to  keep  him  in  good  physical  condi- 
tion. Where  it  is  necessary  that  the  bull  be  kept  in  show 
condition  all  the  time,  as  for  example  in  high-class  breeding 
establishments  where  buyers  are  present  frequently,  the 
bull  is  generally  kept  in  a  box  stall  where  he  may  be  groomed 
and  where  he  is  protected  from  the  weather.  Under  these 
conditions  some  provision  must  be  made  to  exercise  him 
regularly  or  he  is  likely  to  become  infertile.  The  ties,  fences, 
and  gates  should  always  be  strong  and  kept  in  good  repair 


MANAGEMENT  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  93 

so  that  the  animal  may  not  have  a  chance  to  learn  his  enor- 
mous strength. 

QUESTIONS    AND    PROBLEMS 

1.  At  what  time  of  the  year  do  most  cows  in  your  region  freshen  ? 
Froni  this  fact  and  from  Fig.  25,  about  how  much  less  milk  should 
be  giVen  in  August  than  in  June?     From  the  creamery  or  other 
buyer  of  milk  find  the  total  amount  of  milk  received  in  April,  May, 
June.  July,  and  August.     How  does  this  compare  with  the  natural 
drop  ' 

2.  What  proportion  of  the  cattle  in  your  region  are  dehorned? 
How  is  dehorning  done? 

.3.    What  systems  of  marking  cattle  are  used  in  your  region? 
4.    Why  do  dairy  cattle  require  warmer  barns  than  beef  cattle? 
6.    Are  any  advanced  registry  records  made  by  breeders  in  this 
region?     How  many  times  a  day  do  they  milk? 

6.  How  long  are  most  of  the  cows  dry  in  the  best  dairy  herds  of 
your  region? 

LABORATORY    EXERCISES 

7.  Removing  the  Horns  from  a  Calf.     Following  the  direction 
on  page  81  remove  the  horns  from  a  calf  less  than  three  weeks  old. 

8.  Milking  Contest.    A  milking  contest  may  be  held.     Farmers 
should  act  as  judges.     Some  of  the  points  to  consider  should  be : 
The  effect  of  the  manner  of  handling  the  cow  on  her  composure ; 
how  clean  the  milk  is  kept ;    how  completely  the  milk  is  removed 
from  the  udder ;  and  how  fast  the  work  is  done. 

COLLATERAL    READING 

Stable  Fly,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  540. 
Dehorning  Cattle,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  350. 


CHAPTER  5 
FEEDING   DAIRY   CATTLE 

C.  H.  ECKLES 
COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING  STANDARDS 

81.  The  Uses  of  Feed.     A  dairy  cow  uses  feed  for  the 
following  purposes : 

1.  For  maintaining  the  body. 

2.  To  supply  the  material  for  milk. 

3.  For  development  of  the  fetus. 

4.  For  growth  in  case  the  animal  is  immature. 

5.  To  produce  gain  in  weight. 

Three  general  classes  of  food  material  are  required. 

1.  Protein  or  nitrogenous  material. 

2.  Carbohydrates  and  fat. 

3.  Ash  or  mineral  matter. 

The  main  problem  of  feeding  is  to  supply  the  proper 
amount  of  the  food  material  of  the  three  classes  in  the  least 
expensive  form.  It  is  evident  that  the  first  step  is  to  know 
what  the  animal  requires  for  food  and  how  to  prepare  a 
ration  that  will  meet  this  demand. 

82.  Chemical  Analysis  of  Feeds.     When  a  chemist  makes 
an  analysis  of  any  foodstuff,  clover  hay  for  example,  he 
determines  the  amounts  of  water,  protein,  ash,  crude  fiber, 
nitrogen-free  extract,  and  fat  that  the  substance  contains. 
All  feedstuffs  contain  these  same  constituents,  but  in  widely 
varying  quantities. 

94 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  95 

83.  Water.     All  feeds,  even  those  apparently  dry,  like 
con   or  hay,  contain  a  portion  of  water  varying  from  10  to 
15  per  cent.     Roots,  such  as  beets  and  turnips,  contain  about 
90  ]>er  cent  of  water.     The  water  in  the  feed  eaten  serves 
the  same  purpose  as  ordinary  water  consumed  by  the  animals. 

84.  Ash.     This  is  the  mineral  part  of  the  plant  substance 
remaining  after  the  material  is  burned.     It  makes  up  the 
gm  ter  part  of  the  bone,  and  is  a  necessary  part  of  milk  and 
of  loan  meat.     The  ash  elements  that  are  most  likely  to 
be  deficient  are  common  salt,  phosphorus,  and  calcium. 

85.  Protein.      All   protein   compounds   contain  nitrogen. 
They  serve  the  purpose  of  building  up  tissue  in  the  body, 
sucli  as  muscle  and  skin,  and  constitute  the  curd  of  milk. 
Lean  meat  and  the  white  of  an  egg  are  familiar  examples 
of  nearly  pure  protein.     All  feeds  contain  more  or  less  pro- 
tein.    Among  hays,    clover,  alfalfa,   cowpea,   and   soybean 
contain  the  largest  amounts.     Among  the  common  concen- 
trates linseed  meal,  cottonseed  meal,  and  wheat  bran  con- 
tain relatively  large  quantities.     A  certain  amount  of  protein 
is  indispensable  in  a  ration,  as  nothing  else  can  be  substituted 
for  it  by  the  animal. 

86.  Crude  Fiber.     This  is  the  woody  part  of  the  plant, 
which  is  the  least  digestible.     The  amount  of  this  constitu- 
ent increases  with  the  age  of  the  plant,  and  is  large  in  feeds 
like  hays  and  corn  stover,  and  small  in  concentrates  like 
corn  and  linseed  meal. 

87.  Nitrogen-free  Extract.     This  term  includes  the  sugars, 
starches,  and  other  carbohydrates  that  are  much  like  crude 
fiber  in  composition,  but  are  much  more  digestible. 

88.  Fat   or  Ether  Extract.     That  part  of  the  foodstuff 
that  will  dissolve  in  ether  is  called  ether  extract.     It  con- 
sists mostly  of  fats,  and  is  usually  so  called  although  it 


96  DAIRY  FARMING 

includes   sufficient   other   products   to   make   it   somewhat 
inaccurate  to  call  it  fat. 

The  crude  fiber,  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  fat  all  serve 
much  the  same  purposes  in  the  body.  They  supply  heat  to 
keep  the  body  warm,  and  material  to  be  built  into  fat  and  to 
be  burned  or  oxidized  in  the  body  to  furnish  energy. 

89.  Digestibility.     An  animal  is  not   able   to   digest   all 
of  the  substances  in  any  foodstuff.     The  proportion  of  the 
protein,  for  example,  that  may  be  used  depends  largely  upon 
the  nature  of  the  feed.     The  grains  are  more  thoroughly 
digested  than  the  hays.     The  amounts  of  each  of  the  sub- 
stances that  can  be  digested  from  any  feed  are  determined 
by  what  are  called  digestion  trials.     The  chemist  makes 
such  a  trial  by  analyzing  the  food  consumed  during  a  certain 
period,  and  at  the  same  time  collecting  all  the  dung  excreted 
and  analyzing  that  to  find  out  how  much  passes  through 
the  alimentary  canal.     The  difference  between  the  amount 
consumed  and  the  amount  voided  is  called  digestible.     Such 
tests  have  been  made  of  all  common  feeding  stuffs,  so  the 
practical  feeder  has  data  at  hand  regarding  both  the  com- 
position of  feeds  and  their  digestibility  to  serve  as  a  guide 
in  preparing  suitable  rations. 

90.  Production  Values.     The  values  of  different  feeds  are 
not  always  in  proportion  to  the  digestible  nutrients.     If  a 
food  is  hard  to  digest,  some  of  the  energy  derived  from  it  is 
required  to  make  up  the  loss  due  to  the  hard  work  of  diges- 
tion.    Corn  and  other  grains  are  easily  digested,  and  for  this 
reason,  energy  from  grains  is  worth  more  to  the  animal  than 
is  the  same  amount  of  energy  from  timothy  hay  or  other 
coarse  feeds.     Timothy  hay  if  burned  gives  off  as  much  heat 
or  energy  as  does  corn  meal,  but,  in  one  experiment,  Armsby 
found  the  animal  digested  only  44  per  cent  of  the  timothy,  while 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


97 


77  per  cent  of  the  corn  meal  was  digestible.  On  account  of 
the  energy  required  for  digestion,  still  less  was  available  for 
use  in  storing  up  fat,  or  for  producing  milk.  On  the  basis 
of  digestibility  168  pounds  of  timothy  was  equal  to  100 
pounds  of  corn,  but  for  production  purposes,  that  is,  for 
sto  -ing  fat,  producing  milk,  or  making  growth,  269  pounds 
of  1  imothy  was  necessary  to  equal  100  pounds  of  corn.  Table 
14  gives  a  comparison  of  the  amounts  of  energy  available 
fro  in  corn  and  from  timothy  hay. 

TA  SLE  14.  —  ENERGY  VALUES  PER  100  POUNDS  OF  CORN  MEAL 
AND   TIMOTHY   HAY,  EACH  CONTAINING  FIFTEEN  PER   CENT 

WATER 


CORN  MEAL 

TIMOTHY  HAY 

He^t  value  wlien  burned        

Therms 

171 

Therms 

176 

Heut  value  of  material  digested      .     .     . 
Production  value       

131 
70 

78 
26 

It  is  not  safe  to  compare  roughage  with  grain  on  the  basis 
of  digestible  nutrients,  but  such  a  comparison  between  dif- 
ferent classes  of  hay  is  fairly  reliable,  and  grains  may  be 
compared  with  grains  on  the  basis  of  digestible  nutrients. 
The  best  way  thus  far  found  for  comparing  different  feeds  is 
on  the  basis  of  the  energy  values  for '  production.  The 
feeding  standards  given  on  pages  298  to  304  are  based  on 
digestible  material.  Armsby's  standards  given  in  this 
chapter  are  based  on  production  values. 

91.  Feeding  Standards.  The  many  analyses  that  have 
been  made  enable  us  to  know  how  much  of  each  of  the  sev- 
eral constituents  is  contained  in  all  common  feeds  on  the 
average.  It  is  also  known  that  the  cow  needs  all  of  these 


DAIRY  FARMING 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


99 


constituents.  The  next  question  is,  how  much  of  each 
constituent  is  needed  to  supply  what  the  cow  must  have  to 
enable  her  to  produce  a  good  flow  of  milk.  This  problem 
has  been  worked  on  for  many  years  by  able  investigators, 
and  a  fairly  accurate  knowledge  of  the  subject  has  resulted. 
A  si  atement  of  the  food  requirements  of  the  animal  is  known 
as  i\  feeding  standard. 

The  first  feeding  standard  to  come  into  use  in  a  practical 
way  was  one  prepared  by  Wolff,  an  eminent  German  in- 
vesiigator.  A  later  revision  by  Lehmann,  known  as  the 
Woiff-Lehmann  standard,  has  been  widely  used.  A  standard 
prepared  in  this  country  by  Hsecker  has  also  met  with  much 
favor.  The  most  recent  feeding  standard  to  come  into  use 
was  prepared  by  Dr.  Armsby  of  the  Pennsylvania  Exper- 
iment Station  and  is  based  upon  his  own  extensive  investi- 
gations and  those  of  Kellner  in  Germany.  He  bases  this 
standard  upon  the  amount  of  digestible  protein,  and  the 
production  value,  or  energy  value,  of  the  feed.  He  uses  the 
term  "  therm  "  to  represent  the  energy  or  heat  value  re- 
quired to  raise  1000  kilograms  of  water  one  degree  centi- 
grade (1000  calories). 

He  first  estimates  the  protein  and  energy  required  for 
maintaining  the  animal,  and  to  this  adds  the  amount  of  each 
necessary  to  supply  what  is  needed  for  the  milk.  The 
maintenance  requirements  for  cattle  are  given  as  follows : 


LIVE  WEIGHT 

DIGESTIBLE  PROTEIN  RE- 
QUIRED 

ENERGY  VALUE   REQUIRED 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Therms 

500 

.30 

3.80 

750 

.40 

4.95 

1000 

.50 

6.00 

1250 

.60 

7.00 

1500 

.65 

7.90 

100 


DAIRY  FARMING 


The  maintenance  requirement  naturally  increases  with 
the  size  of  the  animal,  but  not  in  direct  proportion. 

As  'a  result  of  his  investigations,  Armsby  suggested  .05 
pounds  of  digestible  protein  and  .3  therms  energy  value  for 
each  pound  of  milk.  This  was  based  upon  average  milk 
containing  4  per  cent  of  fat.  The  author !  has  recently  pro- 
posed the  following  modification  of  Armsby's  standard  to 
adapt  it  to  the  feeding  of  cows  not  producing  average  milk : 


PER  CENT  FAT 

DIGESTIBLE  PROTEIN 
REQUIRED  PER  POUND  MILK 

ENERGY  REQUIRED  PER 
POUND  MILK 

Pounds 

Therms 

3.00 

.050 

.26 

3.50 

.052 

.28 

4.00 

.055 

.30 

.      4.50 

.058 

.33 

5.00 

.062 

.36 

5.50 

.066 

.40 

6.00 

.070 

.45 

6.50 

.075 

.50 

Where  it  is  not  practicable  to  take  the  richness  of  the  milk 
of  each  cow  into  account  the  following  may  be  used  and  the 
requirement  based  upon  breed  average : 


BREED 

DIGESTIBLE  PROTEIN  PER 
POUND  MILK 

ENERGY  PER  POUND  MILK 

Pounds 

Therms 

Holstein     .... 

.05 

.26-.2S 

Shorthorn       1 

Ayrshire          >    ..     . 
Brown  Swiss  j 

.055 

.28-.30 

Jersey        \     .     .     . 
Guernsey  / 

.066 

.40-.45 

92.    Calculating  a  Ration.     Let  it  be  assumed  that  the 
cow  to  be  fed  weighs  1150  pounds  and  produces  daily  30 

1  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Research  Bulletin  7. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  101 

pou  ads  of  milk  testing  4.5  per  cent  fat.  According  to  the 
preceding  table  the  maintenance  requirement  would  be  as 
follows : 

Digestible  protein .56  pounds 

Energy 6.60  therms 


1  or  the  production  of  30  pounds  of  4.50  per  cent  milk 
the  'e  would  be  needed  : 

Digestible  protein  (30  X  .058) 1.74  pounds 

Energy  (30  X  .33  ) 9.90  therms 

The  total  requirements  then  are  as  follows  : 


DIGESTIBLE 
PROTEIN 

ENERGY  VALUE 

For  maintenance      .... 
For  milk  production     .     .     . 

.56 
1.74 

6.60 
9.90 

Total        .     . 

2  30  pounds 

16  50  therms 

The  problem  is  to  find  a  ration  that  contains  this  amount 
of  digestible  protein  and  has  this  energy  value.  Other 
problems  also  enter  into  the  question,  such  as  bulk  and  the 
comparative  cost  of  the  several  feeds  available.  In  cal- 
culating a  ration  we  always  begin  with  the  roughage,  since 
on  most  farms  considerable  roughage  is  on  hand  that  should 
be  used  to  the  best  advantage,  and,  as  already  pointed  out, 
the  cow  is  adapted  for  consuming  coarse  feeds  and  must 
have  a  certain  bulk  in  her  ration  at  all  times.  We  will  as- 
sume that  on  the  farm  where  the  foregoing  ration  is  to  be 
fed,  corn  silage,  clover  hay,  and  corn  are  on  hand,  and  wheat 
bran  and  cottonseed  meal  may  be  purchased  if  necessary 
to  provide  the  proper  ration. 


102 


DAIRY  FARMING 


TABLE  15.  —  DRY  MATTER,  DIGESTIBLE  PROTEIN,  AND  ENERGY 
VALUES  PER  100  POUNDS  l 


FEEDING  STUFF 


TOTAL  DRY 
MATTER 


DIGESTIBLE 
PROTEIN 


Pounds 

Green  fodder  and  silage  : 

Alfalfa 28.2 

Clover  —  crimson      ....  19.1 

Clover  — red 29.2 

Corn  fodder  —  green      .     .     .  20.7 

Corn  silage 2 25.6 

Hungarian  grass 28.9 

Rape 14.3 

Rye 23.4 

Timothy 38.4 

Hay  and  dry  coarse  fodders : 

Alfalfa  hay 91.6 

Clover  hay  —  red       ....  84.7 

Corn  forage  —  field  cured  .     .  57.8 

Corn  stover 59.5 

Cowpea  hay 89.3 

Hungarian  hay 92.3 

Oat  hay 84.0 

Soybean  hay 88.7 

Timothy  hay 86.8 

Straws : 

Oat  straw 90.8 

Rye  straw 92.9 

Wheat  straw 90.4 

Roots  and  tubers : 

Carrots 11.4 

Mangels 9.1 

Potatoes 21.1 

Rutabagas 11.4 

Turnips 9.4 

Grains : 

Barley 89.1 

Corn 89.1 

Corn-and-cob  meal    ....  84.9 

Oats 89.0 

Pea  meal  89.5 


Pounds 

2.50 

2.19 

2.21 

.41 

.88 

1.33 

2.16 

1.44 

1.04 

6.93 
5.41 
2.13 
1.80 

8.57 
3.00 
2.59 
7.68 
2.05 

1.09 
.63 
.37 

.37 
.14 
.45 
.88 
.22 

8.37 
6.79 
4.53 
8.36 
16.77 


1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmer^'  Bulletin  346. 

2  Owing  to  an  error,  the  original  publication  gave  the  protein  of  corn 
silage  as  1.21,  but  .88  is  correct. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


103 


T.ABLE  15.  —  DRY  MATTER,  DIGESTIBLE  PROTEIN,  AND  ENERGY 
VALUES  PER  100  POUNDS  (Continued} 


FEEDING  STUFF 


TOTAL  DRY 
MATTER 


Pounc 

Gr.  Ins  (Continued)  :• 

lye 88.4 

Wheat j      89.5 

By  products : 

]  >rewers'  grain  —  dried  .     .     .  92.0 

1  Jrewers'  grain  —  wet     .     .     .  24.3 

Huckwheat  middlings     .     .     .  88.2 

< /ottonseed  meal 91.8 

Distillers'  grains  —  dried 

Principally  corn      ....  93.0 

Principally  rye 93.2 

Gluten  feed  —  dry     ....  91.9 

Gluten  meal  —  Buffalo        .     .  91.8 

( lluten  meal  —  Chicago      .     .  90.5 

Linseed  meal  —  old  process     .  90.8 

Linseed  meal  —  new  process  90. 1 

Malt  sprouts 89.8 

ftye  bran 88.2 

Sugar  beet  pulp  —  fresh      .     .  10.1 

Sugar  beet  pulp  —  dried     .     .  93.6 

Wheat  bran 88.1 

Wheat  middlings 84.0 


DIGESTIBLE 
PROTEIN 


Pounds 

8.12 
8.90 

19.04 

3.81 

23.34 

35.15 

21.93 
10.38 
19.95 
21.56 
33.09 
27.54 
29.26 
12.36 
11.35 
.63 
6.80 
10.21 
12.79 


ENERGY 
VALUES 


Therms 
81.72 

82.63 

60.01 
14.82 
75.92 
84.20 

79.23 
60.93 
79.32 
88.80 
78.49 
78.92 
74.67 
46.33 
56.65 
•7.77 
60.10 
48.23 
77.65 


A  good  ration  of  roughage  would  be  corn  silage  35  pounds 
and  clover  hay  10  pounds. 

Using  the  data  given  in  Table  15,  the  following  calcula- 
tions are  made : 


DIGESTIBLE  PROTEIN 


ENERGY  VALUE 


35  Ib.  silage    . 
10  Ib.  clover  hay 
Total 


Pounds 

(.35  X    .88)  .31 
(.10  X  5.41)  .54 


Therms 

(.35  X  16.56)  5.80 
(.10  X  34.74)  3.47 


.85 


9.27 


104 


DAIRY  FARMING 


This  leaves  1.45  pounds  of  protein  and  7.23  therms  of 
energy  to  be  supplied  by  the  grain.  If  corn  is  grown  on  the 
farm,  we  will  use  it  as  far  as  possible  in  making  up  the  grain 
ration.  The  amounts  to  be  used  can  only  be  found  by  trial. 
We  will  start  with  the  following :  corn  6  pounds,  bran  3 
pounds,  cottonseed  meal  1.5  pounds. 


DIGESTIBLE 
PROTEIN 

ENERGY 
VALUE 

35  pounds  corn  silage 

Pounds 

31 

Therms 
5  80 

10  pounds  clover  hay    .          .... 

.54 

3.47 

6  pounds  corn    
3  pounds  bran 

.41 
31 

5.33 
1  45 

1  5  pounds  cottonseed  meal  .     .     . 

.53 

1.26 

Total  in  ration                       .... 

2.10 

17.31 

Required       

2.30 

16.50 

This  ration  gives  more  energy  than  is  necessary  and  is 
deficient  in  protein.  Since  cottonseed  meal  is  the  highest 
in  protein  we  will  omit  1  pound  of  corn  and  increase  the 
cottonseed  meal  to  2  pounds.  We  then  have : 


DIGESTIBLE 
PROTEIN 

ENERGY 

35  pounds  corn  silage    

Pounds 

.31 

Therms 
5.80 

10  pounds  clover  hay 

54 

3  47 

5  pounds  corn                    .          ... 

34 

4.44 

3  pounds  bran         

.31 

1.45 

2  cottonseed  meal  

.70 

1.68 

Total  in  ration  

2.20 

16.84 

Required 

230 

16.50 

This  ration  approaches  the  standard  closely  enough  for 
practical  purposes.     It  is  not  essential  to  have  an  exact 


FEEDING  DAI&Y  CATTLE  105 

agreement  with  the  standard,  since  the  composition  of  the 
feed  varies  to  some  extent  and  the  individual  requirements 
of  i  he  animals  are  also  subject  to  some  variations. 

93.  The  Cost  of  the  Ration.  In  the  foregoing,  no  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  the  relative  cost  of  the  feeds  used  in 
mailing  up  the  ration.  This  question  is  one  of  great  impor- 
tance, and  must  always  be  taken  into  account.  In  pre- 
paring the  ration  the  cost  should  be  calculated  at  the  same 
time,  and  trial  made  of  various  combinations  that  offer  to 
reduce  the  cost. 

A  careful  study  of  the  figures  in  Table  15  will  be  of  great 
assistance  in  the  selection  of  the  most  economical  ration.  If 
the  ration  at  hand  is  short  in  protein,  and  the  purchase  of 
soi  Me  concentrate  to  supply  this  deficiency  is  contemplated, 
a  study  should  be  made  of  the  amount  of  digestible  protein 
in  various  feedstuff  s,  together  with  the  price.  A  good  plan 
is  to  calculate  the  cost  per  pound  of  digestible  protein  to 
ascertain  in  what  feed  it  can  be  purchased  most  economically. 
For  example,  if  cottonseed  meal  costs  $32  per  ton,  one  pound 
of  digestible  protein  would  cost  4.6  cents,  if  the  value  out- 
side the  protein  be  ignored.  With  bran  at  $20  per  ton  a 
pound  of  digestible  protein  would  cost  9.8  cents,  and  with 
oats  at  50  cents  per  bushel,  or  $31.25  per  ton,  it  would  be 
worth  18.7  cents.  Under  these  conditions  it  is  readily  seen 
which  feedstuff  would  be  the  cheapest  source  of  protein  for 
the  ration  deficient  in  that  constituent. 

If  the  question  is  that  of  providing  the  cheapest  ration 
as  a  whole  and  not  merely  supplying  a  lack  of  protein,  it  is 
equally  important  to  study  the  energy  value  of  the  several 
feeds  as  carefully  as  is  done  with  the  protein.  It  is  readily 
seen,  for  example,  that  while  bran  has  an  energy  value  of  48.23 
therms  per  100  pounds,  corn  has  a  value  of  88.84.  If  corn 


106  DAIRY  FARMING 

and  bran  are  the  same  price  per  pound,  corn  is  by  far  the 
cheaper  feed.  With  bran  at  $20  per  ton,  a  therm  of  energy 
costs  2.07  cents,  while  in  corn  at  $26  per  ton  the  same  energy 
costs  only  1.46  cents.  When  planning  the  ration  to  be  pur- 
chased, or  even  the  crop  to  be  grown  in  some  cases,  it  is  well 
to  make  such  calculations  as  suggested  and  determine  which 
are  the  cheapest  feedstuffs  under  the  existing  conditions. 

DISCUSSION  OF  COMMON  FEEDSTUFFS 
No  particular  feed  or  combination  of  feeds  is  essential  for 
the  most  economical  production  of  milk.  The  first  consider- 
ation is  to  grow  the  most  suitable  crops  on  the  farm  in  order 
that  the  amount  purchased  may  be  as  small  as  possible 
without  reducing  the  efficiency  of  the  ration.  In  the  brief 
discussion  which  follows,  only  the  most  common  feedstuffs 
are  considered. 

94.  Timothy  Hay.     The  value  of  this  hay  as  a  feed  for 
dairy  cows  is  often  greatly  overestimated.     It  is  unpalatable 
except  when  cut  early  and  therefore  will  not  be  consumed 
in  sufficient  quantities.     The  most  serious  objection  is  the 
low  protein  content. 

95.  Corn  Stover.     This  is  the  name  applied  to  dried  corn 
stalks  from  which  the  ears  have  been  removed.     It  may  be 
utilized  to  a  small  extent.     It  has  the  same  characteristics 
and  objections  as  timothy  hay,  and  cannot  be  depended  upon 
for  more  than  a  part  of  the  roughage. 

96.  Hay  from  Legumes.     Hay  of  this  class  is  especially 
valuable  for  the  dairy  cow.     It  includes  the  common  clovers, 
alfalfa,  the  cowpea,  soybean,  field  pea,  and  other  less  com- 
mon legumes,  such  as  vetch  and  crimson  clover.     Forage 
from  this  class  of  plants  when  properly  cured  is  highly 
palatable,  and  contains  a  relatively  large  amount  of  protein. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  107 

For  this  reason  a  legume  hay  should  by  all  means  be  grown 
by  he  dairy  farmer.  The  ash  content  is  also  large,  which 
is  (  f  importance,  especially  when  fed  with  corn  products 
tha'  are  low  in  ash. 

97.  Silage.     It  is  very  important  that  a  succulent  food 
be  supplied  to  the  cow  at  all  times.     In  feeding  corn  silage 
it  siiould  be  kept  in  mind  that  this  of  itself  is  not  a  complete 
ration  for  the  cow  in  milk,  since  it  is  relatively  high  in  car- 
bo  hydrates  and  low  in  protein.     It  is  usually  not  advisable 
to  feed  over  about  35  pounds  to  a  small  cow  and  40  to  45  to 
a   large  one.     It  is  not  advisable  to  feed  it  as  the  only 
roughage.     Some   hay  should  be  given.     For  this  purpose 
the   legumes   are   best   adapted,   on   account  of  their  high 
protein  and  ash  content. 

98.  Corn.     Over  the  greater  part  of  America,  corn  is  the 
cheapest  grain.     In  the  corn  belt  this  valuable  grain  is  often 
fed  to  excess.     On  the  other  hand,  some  dairymen  do  not 
feed  any  of  it,  on  account  of  the  erroneous  idea  that  it  is  not 
suited  for  milk  production.     Corn  may  be  fed  in  reasonable 
quantities  to  any  class  of  animals  on  the  farm.    It  is  es- 
pecially palatable  for  the  cow  in  milk.     However,  it  should 
not   be  the  only  grain  feed.     Corn  is  low  in   protein  and 
ash  content.     If  combined  with  corn  stover,  corn  silage  or 
timothy  hay  for  roughage,  the  protein  content  is  entirely 
too  low  for  a  dairy  ration.     Corn  silage  and  ground  corn 
combined   with   clover   or   alfalfa   hay   and   bran,  however, 
makes  a  good  ration  for  general  feeding. 

99.  Wheat  Bran.     Next  to  corn,  wheat  bran  is  the  most 
important  cow  feed  of  this  country.     Its  great  value  as  a 
food  for  growing  animals  and  cows  in  milk  comes  from  the 
high  ash  and  protein    content.     Its    light,  loose  character 
also  makes  it  a  valuable  addition  to  a  heavy  ration  in  the  way 


108  DAIRY  FARMING 

of  lightening  up  the  mass  so  that  it  is  easier  for  the  digestive 
juices  to  act  upon  it.  This  is  of  special  importance  in  con- 
nection with  such  feeds  as  cottonseed  meal,  that  have  a  ten- 
dency to  form  a  pasty  mass  in  the  stomach. 

Wheat  middlings,  or  shorts,  is  a  valuable  feed  for  the  cow, 
but  it  is  more  like  corn  meal  in  composition  and  prop- 
erties than  like  bran.  As  a  rule  it  is  better  to  make  use  of 
bran  rather  than  shorts  for  the  cow  in  milk. 

100.  Oats  and  Oat  Products.     Oats  is  an  excellent  feed 
for  cows  and  growing  animals  when  the  cost  is  not  pro- 
hibitive.    Woll  found  oats  to  be  about  10  per  cent  more 
valuable  per  pound  than  bran  as  feed  for  cows.     In  general, 
it  may  be  said  that  oats  are  themselves  an  excellent  feed. 
But  if  the  balance  of  the  ration  is  deficient  in  protein,  oats 
do  not  contain  enough  protein  to  make    up  the  shortage. 
The  valuable  by-products  of  oats  are  mainly  from  oatmeal 
mills,  and  consist  of  oat  shorts  and  finely  divided  parts  of 
the  grain.     Besides  these,  a  much  larger  quantity  of  hulls 
must  be  disposed  of  by  these  mills.     Hulls  are  mostly  crude 
fiber  and  are  about  like  oat  straw  in  feeding  value.     The 
by-products  of  the  oatmeal  mills  are  therefore  valuable,  to 
the  extent  that  they  contain  the  parts  of  the  grains.     Oat 
hulls  are  used  largely  to  form  a  portion  of  various  mixed  feeds. 

101.  Cottonseed    Meal.     This    by-product   is    left    after 
the  oil  is  extracted  from  cottonseed.     It  contains  a  higher 
amount  of  protein  than  any  other  common  feed.     For  this 
reason  it  is  especially  valuable  for  balancing  rations  deficient 
in  protein,  for  instance  those  in  which  corn  and  corn  products 
form  a  large  proportion.     It  should  not  be  fed  to  excess. 
As  a  rule  from  two  to  four. pounds  per  day  is  the  maximum. 
However,  in  the  South,  where  it  is  abundant,  it  is  fed  in 
much  larger  quantities  with  good  results. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  109 

102.  Linseed  Meal.     This  valuable  feed  is  the  residue 
aftei1  linseed  oil  is  extracted  from  flaxseed.     It  ranks  next 
to  cottonseed  meal  in  protein,  and  on  the  market  usually 
sell?  for  a  little  more.     It  seems  to  exert  a  very  favorable 
effei  t  upon  animals  of  all  kinds.     Like  cottonseed  meal,  it 
is  especially  valuable  as  a  means  of  supplying  the  protein 
usually  lacking  in  the  farm-grown  ration. 

103.  Gluten  Feed.     This  is   a   by-product  from  starch 
and  glucose  factories.     It  consists  of  the  corn  grain  after  the 
starch   is   extracted.     In   protein   content   it   ranks   about 
midway  between  bran  and  oil  meal,  and  is  a  palatable  and 
valuable  feed. 

104.  Beet  Pulp  and  Molasses.     Formerly  beet  pulp  was 
fed  to  cattle  in  the   neighborhood  of   beet-sugar  factories, 
but  now  much  of  it  is  dried.     The  feeding  value  of  dried  beet 
pulp  is  a  little  less  per  pound  than  corn,  which  it  resembles 
in  the  relative  amount  of  protein  and  carbohydrates  present. 
It  swells  greatly  when  moistened  and  cannot  be  pressed  into 
a  compact  mass.     For  this  reason  it  is  easily  digested  and 
is  valuable  to  lighten  up  a  grain  ration  that  otherwise  would 
form  a  mass  in  the  stomach  not  easily  penetrated  by  the 
digestive  juices. 

Low-grade  molasses  is  another  by-product  of  cane  and 
beet-sugar  factories.  It  is  often  sold  in  combination  with 
other  feeds,  such  as  beet  pulp  and  alfalfa  hay,  and  sometimes 
with  nearly  worthless  materials  such  as  peanut  hulls,  weed 
seeds,  cocoa  waste,  or  peat  moss.  Molasses  serves  a  useful 
purpose  in  making  unpalatable  feeds  more  readily  consumed. 
Unfortunately  it  is  too  often  used  to  disguise  material  of 
little  or  no  feeding  value. 

105.  Brewers'  Grains.     Fresh   brewers'  grains  are  fed  in 
large  quantities  where  they  may  be  hauled  directly  from  the 


110  DAIRY  FARMING 

brewery.  Considerable  objection  has  been  raised  by  city 
health  authorities  to  the  use  of  this  feed.  If  fed  in  moderate 
amounts  under  proper  sanitary  conditions,  it  is  not  ob- 
jectionable. However,  the  use  of  it  is  so  often  abused  that 
officials  in  some  localities  have  found  it  easier  to  prohibit 
the  use  than  to  regulate  it.  The  objection  comes  from 
feeding  these  grains  exclusively,  from  allowing  decomposi- 
tion to  begin  before  feeding,  and  from  the  very  objection- 
able sanitary  conditions  that  exist  if  special  care  is  not  taken 
to  keep  the  feed  boxes,  feeding  troughs,  and,  in  fact,  the 
entire  stable,  clean.  This  feed  should  not  be  used  in  excess 
of  twenty  pounds  per  day,  and  should  be  supplemented  with 
hay  and  some  other  grain,  such  as  corn. 

The  greater  part  of  the  brewers'  grains  now  produced  are 
dried,  and  in  this  form  may  be  transported  long  distances. 
This  feed  is  rich  in  protein.  Four  or  five  pounds  may  be 
used  in  the  ration  to  advantage.  At  present  the  larger  part 
of  this  by-product  finds  a  market  in  Europe. 

106.  Mixed  Feeds.  No  small  proportion  of  the  grain 
supplied  the  dairy  cows  of  the  United  States  is  in  the  form  of 
mixed  feeds.  As  a  class,  mixed  feed  is  to  be  looked  upon 
with  suspicion.  Where  the  unmixed  grains  and  by-products 
may  be  bought  on  the  market,  it  is  always  safer  to  purchase 
them  and  to  make  such  mixtures  as  may  be  best  to  supple- 
ment the  available  farm  feeds.  The  main  purpose  of  the 
manufacturers  or  dealers  in  putting  feed  mixtures  on  the 
market  is  to  dispose  of  material  of  inferior  quality  or  of  some 
by-product  of  little  or  no  value.  One  of  the  most  common 
ingredients  of  mixed  feeds  is  oat  hulls,  from  oatmeal  factories. 
In  many  cases  the  hulls  are  ground  fine  to  escape  detection, 
and  the  claim  is  made  that  ground  oats  is  a  part  of  the 
mixture.  A  careful  examination  will  usually  disclose  the  fact 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  111 

that  oat  hulls  have  been  added.  Ground  corncobs  and  corn 
bra  n  are  occasionally  mixed  with  wheat  bran.  A  cottonseed 
feed  that  is  a  mixture  of  cottonseed  hulls  and  cottonseed 
me  il  is  found  on  the  market.  The  only  object  in  making 
such  a  mixture  is  to  sell  cottonseed  hulls  at  a  good  price. 
All  alf a  hay  of  doubtful  quality  is  mixed  with  sugar  refuse,  and 
by  liberal  advertising  sold  at  a  price  above  its  real  value. 

Nearly  all  states  where  large  quantities  of  feed  are  pur- 
chased by  the  farmers  now  have  laws  regarding  the  sale  of 
feeding  stuffs.  These  laws,  however,  do  not  take  the  place 
of  intelligence  on  the  part  of  feed  users.  Such  a  law  generally 
requires  the  proper  branding  of  each  sack  and  labeling  to 
inciicate  the  chemical  composition.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  label  gives  the  total  amount  of  protein  and  other 
constituents,  and  not  the  amount  of  each  that  is  digestible, 
which  is  decidedly  lower.  Feed  buyers  should  patronize 
only  reliable  dealers,  and  buy  feeds  that  are  labeled  and 
guaranteed.  There  are  no  mixtures  better  than  the  buyer 
can  make  himself,  and  there  is  no  special  feed  or  mixture 
having  any  remarkable  properties  not  possessed  by  familiar 
feeds.  The  buyer  of  mill  feeds  should  make  a  point  of  keep- 
ing in  touch  with  the  experiment  station  of  his  state,  and  if 
the  feed  control  is  vested  in  some  other  body  or  official,  with 
them  as  well,  and  make  use  of  the  information  they  will  be 
able  to  furnish  regarding  the  feeds  on  the  market. 

107.  Condimental  Stock  Foods.  Numerous  articles  vari- 
ously known  as  "  stock  food  "  and  "  condition  powders  " 
are  common  on  the  market  and  are  fed  to  a  considerable 
extent  by  farmers  who  are  not  well  informed  regarding  the 
feeding  of  live  stock.  They  are  guaranteed  to  make  stock 
grow  faster,  cows  to  give  more  and  richer  milk,  and  some 
are  recommended  as  cures  for  nearly  all  diseases  of  domestic 


112  DAIRY  FARMING 

animals.  The  best  of  these  substances  generally  have  for 
their  base  common  feedstuffs,  such  as  linseed  meal  or  wheat 
middlings,  while  others  contain  low-grade  mill  refuse  or  even 
ground  bark  or  clay.  To  the  base  is  added  various  other 
substances,  such  as  common  salt,  charcoal,  sulphate  of  iron, 
gentian,  pepper,  and  Epsom  salts,  and  often  tumeric  or  iron 
oxide  for  coloring.  Some  may  have  a  small  value  as  a  tonic, 
but  if  such  treatment  is  desirable,  the  necessary  drugs  should 
be  purchased  at  a  drug  store,  and  may  be  had  for  a  small  part 
of  the  sum  asked  for  the  same  in  the  form  of  stock  food. 

Many  experiment  stations  have  made  feeding  tests  which 
have  shown  that  no  value  was  derived  from  the  use  of  the 
several  brands  of  commercial  stock  foods.  Money  expended 
for  this  class  of  articles  will  give  far  greater  returns  if  used 
for  the  purchase  of  ordinary  feed. 

FEEDING  YOUNG  STOCK  AND  DRY  Cows 

108.  Calf  Raising.  The  careful  dairyman  sees  in  the 
best  heifers  the  possibility  of  cows  that  will  not  only  replace 
the  discarded  members  of  the  herd  but  help  to  raise  the  aver- 
age, production.  The  question  is  often  asked  as  to  whether 
it  pays  to  raise  the  calf.  The  answer  is  that  only  under 
exceptional  conditions  can  the  farmer  afford  not  to  raise  the 
well-bred  heifer  calves.  Some  farmers  near  large  cities  where 
feed  is  high  in  price  find  it  more  profitable  to  buy  all  their 
cows,  but  as  a  general  practice  in  most  farming  sections,  the 
best  heifers  should  be  raised. 

The  dairy-bred  calf  is  almost  always  raised  by  hand.  A 
discussion  of  the  subject  is  naturally  divided  into  two  parts 
on  account  of  the  two  common  conditions : 

1.  Calf  raising  where  skim-milk  is  on  hand. 

2.  Raising  the  calf  where  whole  milk  is  sold. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


113 


109.  Raising  the  Calf  on  Skim-milk.  It  is  well  known 
thai  calves  may  be  raised  on  skim-milk  practically  as  well 
as  when  fed  whole  milk. 
A  ^kim-milk  calf  is  not 
quite  so  fat  during  the 
firsi  few  weeks  but  grows 
equally  as  well  as  the 
om  receiving  the  un- 
sepirated  milk  and  de- 
velops into  an  equally 
good  animal.  Skim-milk 

differs  from  whole  milk        Flf,   30.  -  A  thrifty  Holstem  heifer  six 

months  old,  raised  on  skim-milk  after  the 

Only  in  the  much  Smaller     first  two  weeks  with  very  little  grain.     It 
,. ,  »        ,  was  fed  200  pounds  of  whole  milk,  and 

amount  ot  butter-tat  that    26io  pounds  of  skim-milk. 
it  contains. 

The  calf  may  be  taken  from  the  cow  at  birth  or  allowed 
to  nurse  two  or  three  days.     It  should  be  given  its  mother's 


FIG.  31.  —  The  same  animal  shown  in  Fig.  30  when  four  years  old,  a 
good  type  of  cow  and  a  good  producer. 


114 


DAIRY  FARMING 


milk  for  the  first  few  days,  later  mixed  milk  is  as  good. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  overfeed  at  any  time.  For  the 
first  two  weeks  ten  to  twelve  pounds  per  day  is  all  that  the 
largest  calf  will  require.  A  small  one  needs  even  less.  It  may 
be  fed  in  two  feeds,  but  three  feeds  are  better  for  the  first 
two  or  three  weeks.  Each  animal  should  be  fed  by  itself 

so  that  it  is  cer- 
tain to  get  the 
proper  amount 
of  milk.  As  the 
calf  gets  older 
the  amount  of 
milk  may  be  in- 
creas'e'd  some- 
what, but  it  is 
not  necessary  to 
feed  over  16 
pounds  a  day  at 
any  time.  A 
large  calf  can 

take  up  to  20  pounds  without  injury.  The  milk  must 
always  be  fed  fresh  and  sweet.  Milk  that  has  been  standing 
some  time,  even  if  it  does  not  taste  sour,  is  not  in  the  best 
condition  for  feeding.  The  milk  should  have  a  temperature 
of  90°  F.  or  higher  while  the  calf  is  young,  but  later  it 
becomes  less  sensitive  to  a  slight  change  in  temperature. 
After  about  two  weeks  the  feeder  may  begin  to  replace 
the  whole  milk  with  skim-milk.  This  should  be  done 
gradually,  about  a  week  being  given  to  the  change.  The 
amount  fed  should  not  be  greater  because  skim-milk  is 
given  in  place  of  whole  milk. 

By  the  time  the  calf  is  a  month  old  it  will  begin  to  eat 


FIG.  32.  —  A  Holstein  heifer  calf  six  months  old, 
raised  on  whole  milk.  Total  milk  consumed  2960 
pounds. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  115 

grain.  The  grain  is  best  fed  dry  after  the  milk  is  drunk. 
Cor  i  meal,  linseed  meal,  oatmeal,  or  a  mixture  of  all,  serves 
alrrnst  equally  well  for  this  purpose.  Where  corn  is  grown 
in  abundance,  corn  meal  is  most  commonly  used  as  it  alone 


FIG    33.  —  The  same  animal  shown  in  Fig.  32,  when  six  years  old,  a  good 
milk  producer  but  no  better  than  the  one  raised  on  skim-milk. 

has  been  found  equal  to  any  other  grain  or  any  combination 
for  this  purpose.  The  total  amount  of  feed  required  for  a 
calf  raised  on  skim-milk  up  to  the  age  of  six  months  is 
shown  by  the  following,  which  is  the  average  amount  fed  to 
seven  calves. 

Whole  milk 360  pounds 

Skim-milk 2804  pounds 

Hay    . 270  pounds 

Grain 113  pounds 

Average  weight  of  calves  at  birth     ....  66  pounds 

Average  weight  at  180  days 303  pounds 

Average  daily  gain 1.3  pounds 

The  skim-milk  calf  should  have  hay  placed  within  reach 
as  soon  as  it  is  old  enough  to  eat  it,  or  when  it  is  about  one 


116  DAIRY  FARMING 

month  old.     The  calf  does  equally  well  for  the  first  three  or 
four  months  with  hay  or  with  pasture  grass  for  roughage. 

Another  exceedingly  important  point  is  the  necessity  for 
cleanliness  of  the  pails  and  troughs  used  for  calf  feeding.  A 
good  rule  is  to  have  the  calf  pails  as  clean  as  the  milk  pails. 
The  barn  or  stalls  must  also  be  clean  and  light.  Dark,  damp, 
or  dirty  stalls  often  result  in  serious  sickness.  The  best 
part  of  the  barn  should  be  used  for  the  calf  pens.  The 
raising  of  the  calf  on  skim-milk  may  be  summarized  as 
follows : 

1.  Take  the  calf  from  its  mother  not  later  than  the  third 
day. 

2.  Feed  mother's  milk  for  two  weeks,  then  change  gradu- 
ally to  skim-milk. 

3.  Especially  avoid  overfeeding.     Keep  the  calf  a  little 
hungry,  and  make  sure  that  each  calf  receives  its  proper 
amount. 

4.  Feed  the  skim-milk  warm  and  fresh  every  time. 

5.  Feed  dry  grain,  preferably  com  meal,  as  soon  as  the 
calf  will  take  it. 

6.  Keep  the  utensils  and  stalls  clean  at  all  times. 

110.  Raising  Calves  when  Whole  Milk  is  Sold.  The 
main  difficulty  in  calf  raising  where  whole  milk  is  sold  on  the 
market  is  the  matter  of  expense.  • 

To  raise  a  calf  on  whole  milk  means  that  the  milk  consumed 
may  be  greater  in  value  than  the  calf  raised.  If  the  calf  is  fed 
whole  milk  as  freely  as  skim-milk  is  given,  it  would  consume 
2000  to  2500  pounds  before  it  is  weaned.  At  SI. 50  per  hun- 
dredweight, the  feed  up  to  six  months  would  represent  a 
value  of  $30  to  $38.  It  is  evident  that  this  sum  can  be 
expended  with  profit  only  on  very  valuable  calves. 

As  a  result  of  this  situation  the  practice  of  not  raising  even 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  117 

the  best  heifer  calves  is  too  common.  This  policy  stands 
in  ihe  way  of  improvement  of  the  herd.  The  Illinois  Ex- 
periment Station  found  the  average  profit  per  cow  to  be 
$20.53  more  each  year  in  those  herds  in  which  a  pure-bred 
bull  was  kept  and  calves  raised. 

111.  The  Use  of  Milk  Substitutes.  Several  calf  meals 
advertised. as  milk  substitutes  are  on  the  market.  These  are" 
sold  under  a  trade  name  and  the  composition  is  not  given. 
In  general  they  are  a  mixture  of  linseed  meal,  oatmeal, 
wheat  middlings,  and  corn  meal.  In  some  cases  bean  meal, 
ground  flaxseed,  or  skim-milk  powder  is  included.  The 
Cornell  University  Experiment  Station1  obtained  good 
results  by  the  use  of  a  commercial  calf  meal  composed  of 
oatmeal,  wheat  meal,  flaxseed,  and  dried  skim-milk.  The 
calves  received  in  addition  a  grain  mixture  consisting  of 
corn,  oats,  and  wheat  bran,  three  parts  each.  The  calves 
were  fed  whole  milk  alone  for  the  first  week  after  which  the 
calf  meal  was  gradually  introduced.  The  feeding  of  milk 
was  gradually  reduced  until  at  the  end  of  about  one  month 
the  calves  were  receiving  only  the  calf  meal,  grain  mixture, 
and  hay.  Most  of  the  calves  were  able  to  grow  fairly  well 
on  this  ration,  and  they  developed  into  good  cows.  The 
average  quantities  of  feed  used  up  to  five  months  of  age 
were : 

Whole  milk 226  pounds 

Calf  meal 220  pounds 

Grain 109  pounds 

Hay 329  pounds 

Average  gain  per  day 1.1  pounds 

Total  cost  of  feed $14.69 

1  Cornell    University    Agricultural  Experiment   Station,    Bulletins    269 
and  304. 


118  DAIRY  FARMING 

Excellent  results  were  also  obtained  by  the  same  station  by 
the  use  of  dried  skim-milk  powder.  The  quantities  of  feed 
required  for  each  calf  up  to  five  months  with  this  ration  were  : 

Whole  milk 185  pounds 

Milk  powder .  230  pounds 

Hay 370  pounds 

Grain 114  pounds 

Gain  per  day 1.25  pounds 

Total  cost  of  feed $11.75 

The  Illinois  Experiment  Station  conducted  an  experiment 
to  determine  the  minimum  amount  of  milk  necessary  to 
raise  a  calf.  Milk  feeding  was  continued  to  the  age  of  from 
42  to  56  days.  Whole  milk  was  fed  the  first  three  weeks 
followed  by  skim-milk  up  to  the  age  of  eight  weeks.  It 
was  concluded  that  it  is  advisable  to  feed  milk  long  enough 
to  give  the  calves  a  good  start.  After  the  age  of  eight  weeks 
the  calves  thrived  on  grain  and  hay.  The  grain  ration  was 
a  mixture  of  corn,  4  parts ;  oats,  4  parts  ;  and  bran  and  lin- 
seed oil  meal,  1  part  each.  The  total  amounts  fed  per  animal 
were  whole  milk,  134  pounds ;  skim-milk,  422  pounds.  The 
total  value  of  the  milk  used  was  $4.62  for  each  calf.1 

These  results  show  clearly  that  the  milk  can  be  reduced  to 
an  amount  that  does  not  make  the  cost  of  raising  the  calf 
excessive.  When  grain  is  substituted  for  milk  under  the 
conditions  discussed,  it  must  not  be  expected  that  the  calf 
will  appear  as  fat  and  thrifty  as  one  receiving  milk.  How- 
ever, there  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  the  dairy  qualities 
of  the  cow  are  injured  in  any  way.  If  a  good  ration  is  fed 
as  the  calf  grows  older,  it  will  make  up  any  deficiency  in 
size  that  may  result  from  the  lack  of  more  milk  in  the  ration 
when  young. 

1  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  164. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


119 


112.  Feeding  for  Veal.  To  make  a  good  veal  requires 
liberal  feeding  of  fresh  whole  milk.  So  far  no  substitute  for 
whole  milk  has  been  found  for  this  purpose.  The  best 
qur  lity  of  veal  is  produced  when  the  animal  receives  nothing 
but  whole  milk  and  is  slaughtered  at  the  age  of  two  months. 
Th  >  regulation  of  the  United  States  Government  for  inter- 
sta  e  commerce  requires  that  the  calf  be  at  least  three  weeks 
old  before  being  put  on  the  market.  Many  cities  also  have 
regulations  regarding  either  the  age  or  the  weight  of  veal 
cal /es.  Where  such  regulations  are  not  enforced  the  ten<- 
dei  cy  is  to  market  the  calves  younger  than  this  age,  since 
wh  m  milk  is  high  priced,  the  younger  the  calf  is  sold  the 
greater  the  profit.  The  first  question  to  be  answered  is 
whether  the  calf  can  be  raised  profitably  for  veal.  It  often 
ha]  >pens,  especially  with  the  breeds  having  small  calves, 
thft  the  milk  fed  is  worth  more  than  the  market  value  of 
the  calf  when  sold.  For  this  reason  some  do  not  attempt 
to  raise  the  calf  for  veal  but  destroy  those  not  wanted 
for  breeding  purposes  at  birth. 

TABLE  16.  —  FEED  CONSUMED  AND  GAIN  FIRST  30  DAYS 


BREED 

No. 
CALVES 

AVERAGE 
BIRTH 
WEIGHT 

WEIGHT 
AT  END 
OF  30 
DAYS 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 

POUNDS 
OF  MILK 
CON- 
SUMED 

POUNDS 
MILK  PER 
POUND 
GAIN 

Jersey         .     .     . 

10 

49 

88.9 

1.33 

376 

9.42 

Holstein     .     .     . 

8 

83 

127.0 

1.47 

441 

10.02 

Ayrshire     .     .     . 

2 

70 

107.0 

1.23 

344 

9.31 

The  average  daily  gain  of  a  dairy-bred  calf  is  from  1.2 
to  2  pounds  during  the  first  few  weeks.  About  10  pounds  of 
whole  milk  are  required  for  each  pound  of  gain.  The  data 


120  DAIRY  FARMING 

in  Table  16  show  the  average  gain  and  weight  for  calves  of 
three  breeds  as  found  by  the  author. 

113.  Feeding  the  Dairy  Heifer.  No  special  difficulties 
are  experienced  in  raising  heifer  calves  from  the  time  of 
weaning  until  they  come  into  milk.  If  pasturing  is  practiced, 
no  further  attention  or  additional  feed  is  necessary  so  long 
as  the  grass  is  abundant.  The  winter  ration  should  consist 
of  a  good  quality  of  roughage  with  a  small  amount  of  grain. 
A  good  ration  is  corn  silage  and  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  with  a 
grain  allowance  of  about  2  or  3  pounds  daily  per  animal. 
A  more  liberal  grain  ration  will  cause  a  more  rapid  growth 
of  the  young  animals  and  earlier  maturity.  It  is  possible  by 
heavy  grain  feeding  to  have  a  heifer  as  mature  at  the  age  of 
18  months  as  another  fed  entirely  on  roughage  is  at  24 
months.  Liberal  feeding  during  the  growing  period  and 
the  better  condition  of  the  animal  which  follows  result  in 
a  larger  milk  yield  during  the  first  year  than  is  the  case  when 
less  is  fed.  The  size  of  the  animal  when  mature  is  influenced 
to  some  extent  by  the  manner  of  feeding  during  the  growing 
period.  In  experiments  by  the  author,  heifers  fed  a  liberal 
ration  measured  over  an  inch  more  in  height  when  mature 
than  did  heifers  fed  a  ration  with  less  nutrients.1  At  the 
age  of  18  months  the  difference  was  nearly  3.5  inches,  but 
the  group  receiving  the  lighter  ration  continued  to  grow  for 
several  months  after  the  heavier  fed  group  had  ceased  grow- 
ing. The  lighter  fed  group,  however,  remained  slightly 
smaller.  Another  factor  that  has  some  influence  on  the  size 
of  the  cow  when  mature  is  the  age  at  which  she  comes  into 
milk.  A  heifer  that  freshens  at  an  early  age,  for  example, 
20  to  22  months  for  a  Jersey,  and  22  to  24  for  a  Holstein, 
will  not  develop  into  so  large  an  animal  as  she  would  if  she 

1  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  135. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


121 


122 


DAIRY  FARMING 


were  somewhat  older.  The  difference  will  not  be  very 
marked  unless  the  animal  has  also  been  fed  a  light 
ration  up  to  this  time  and  is  therefore  immature  for 
the  age. 

Heavy  grain  feeding  when  young,  accompanied  by  late 
breeding,  will  develop  a  heifer  to  her  maximum  size.  A 
ration  that  does  not  supply  an  abundance  of  food  in  an 
easily  digestible  form,  as,  for  example,  hay  and  silage  alone, 
together  with  early  calving  will  result  in  a  slower  growth 
of  the  animal  and  a  somewhat  smaller  size  at  maturity. 
The  best  practice  to  follow  is  one  between  these  two  ex- 
tremes. A  heifer  fed  exclusively  on  roughage  is  too  slow 
in  reaching  maturity,  while  the  heavy  feeding  of  grain  is  too 
expensive.  A  good  development  can  be  had  by  feeding 
good  roughage  together  with  about  2  or  3  pounds  of  grain 
per  day  during  the  winter  season.  The  figures  in  Table 
17,  as  found  by  the  writer,  will  be  of  assistance  to  the 
farmer  who  wishes  to  know  whether  his  young  animals  are 
being  fed  so  that  their  development  is  up  to  the  average 
of  the  breed. 

TABLE  17.  —  AVEEAGE  HEIGHT  AND  WEIGHT  OF  DAIRY  HEIFERS 


JERSEYS 

HOLSTEINS 

AGE 

Height  at 
Withers 

Weight 

Height  at 
Withers 

Weight 

Inches 

Pounds 

Inches 

Pounds 

6  months 

31.7 

265 

40.8 

350 

9  months 

41.2 

378 

43.4 

444 

12  months 

43.4 

468 

45.6 

548 

15  months 

45.2 

556 

47.4 

620 

18  months 

47.0 

598 

48.8 

710 

24  months 

48.4 

750 

50.0 

900 

FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  123 

Sufficient  data  are  not  at  hand  for  the  Guernsey  and 
Ayrshire  breeds,  but  they  fall  between  the  two  breeds  given. 

It  is  well  to  breed  the  heifer  sp  that  she  will  come  into 
milk  at  24  to  26  months  of  age  if  a  Jersey  or  Guernsey,  and  at 
28  to  30  months  if  a  Holstein  or  an  Ayrshire,  the  variations 
suggested  being  made  to  allow  for  the  size  of  the  animal. 

T  le  milking  tendency  of  the  cow  when  mature  is  not  in- 
fluei  iced  to  any  appreciable  extent  by  any  ordinary  variations 
in  the  ration  fed  during  the  growing  period.  The  dairy 
cha]  acteristic  of  a  cow  is  a  matter  of  inheritance  and  does 
not  ,eem  to  be  influenced  to  any  great  extent  by  over-  or  under- 
feed ng  when  a  heifer.  In  experiments  by  the  author  with 
ovei  40  animals  some  of  the  best  milk  producers,  as  well  as 
some  of  the  worst,  were  in  a  group  fed  excessively  from  birth 
to  first  calving.  Another  group  receiving  a  light  ration  up 
to  calving  time  showed  the  same  variation  in  quality.1 

114.  Salt  Requirements.  All  animals  that  consume  large 
quantities  of  vegetable  food  require  salt.  It  is  not  merely 
an  appetizer  but  a  necessity.  Animals  that  live  upon  meat 
do  not  have  this  craving.  A  cow  kept  without  salt  shows 
a  strong  craving  for  it  during  the  first  few  weeks,  then  quiets 
down  into  an  emaciated  condition  of  low  vitality,  which  will 
result  in  a  complete  breakdown  after  several  months. 

The  amount  of  salt  needed  varies  with  the  amount  of  feed 
consumed.  A  dry  cow  needs  about  .75  ounce  per  day.  The 
cow  in  milk  needs  the  same  amount  for  maintenance  and 
in  addition  about  .6  ounce  per  day  for  each  20  pounds  of 
milk.  The  amount  required  therefore  for  cows  yielding  from 
20  to  30  pounds  of  milk  per  day  is  about  1.5  ounces.  Salt 
ma}-  be  supplied  by  mixing  the  proper  amount  regularly  in 
the  feed  or  it  may  be  placed  where  the  animal  can  have  access 

1  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  135. 


124  DAIRY  FARMING 

to  it.  If  the  cattle  run  out  every  day,  the  best  way  to  salt 
them  is  to  keep  a  constant  supply  in  a  box  in  the  yard. 
The  plan  of  salting  the  cattle  at  intervals  of  one  or  two  weeks 
is  not  to  be  recommended. 

115.  Feeding  the  Cow  when  Dry.  The  milk  yield  of  a 
cow  throughout  her  entire  lactation  period  is  influenced  by 
her  condition  of  flesh  at  calving  time.  For  good  results  it 
is  very  important  that  she  be  in  good  flesh  at  this  time. 
A  high  producer  will  yield  fully  20  per  cent  more  during  the 
year  if  in  good  order  at  calving  time.  Less  trouble  is  also 
experienced  when  the  calf  is  born.  All  mammals  naturally 
take  on  flesh  before  the  young  is  born.  This  reserve  store 
of  food  is  needed  to  aid  in  the  production  of  milk.  We 
expect  a  dairy  cow  to  give  several  times  as  much  milk  as 
the  calf  requires.  The  importance  of  her  being  fat  is  there- 
fore all  the  greater.  The  grain  given  to  a  dry  cow  is  not 
lost.  It  is  used  to  store  up  fat  in  the  body  for  the  purpose  of 
milk  production.  If  when  a  good  cow  is  dry,  she  is  fed 
sufficient  grain  to  get  her  in  good  flesh,  it  is  just  as  sure  to  be 
returned  in  milk  as  is  the  grain  fed  when  the  cow  is  giving 
milk.  The  astonishing  records  of  milk  and  fat  production 
obtained  within  recent  years  from  cows  under  official  test  are 
due  in  no  small  measure  to  a  realization  of  the  importance 
of  having  the  cow  well  fed  before  freshening  and  in  a  high 
state  of  flesh. 

The  feeding  of  the  cow  when  dry  will  depend  upon  her 
condition  when  milking  ceases.  If  in  good  flesh,  only  a  little 
more  than  a  maintenance  ration  should  be  given.  If  not 
in  good  condition,  a  more  liberal  ration  is  advisable,  suffi- 
cient to  insure  her  being  in  good  flesh  when  she  freshens. 
The  character  of  the  ration  fed  at  this  time  need  not  vary 
materially  from  that  given  to  the  cows  in  milk.  Good  pas- 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  125 

ture,  legume  hay,  and  roots  or  silage  are  adapted  for  use 
as  roughage.  As  the  time  for  freshening  approaches,  the 
cow  should  by  all  means  have  a  laxative  ration  if  she  has 
not  been  receiving  it  before ;  if  on  pasture,  no  special  atten- 
tion :s  called  for  in  this  respect.  The  cow  should  have  ex- 
ercise,  and  nothing  is  better  than  freedom  in  a  smooth  pas- 
ture or  freedom  in  a  barnyard  in  winter. 

FEEDING  THE  Cow  IN  MILK 

116.  Water  for  Cows.  Large  amounts  of  water  are 
necessary  for  producing  the  milk  itself  and  for  the  digestion 
and  Assimilation  of  the  larger  quantities  of  feed  required  to 
mak(  it.  The  author  found  by  experiments  that  a  cow 
producing  27  pounds  of  milk  per  day  drank  77  pounds  of 
water.  The  same  cow  when  dry  drank  only  15  pounds  per 
day.  Another  cow  producing  over  100  pounds  of  milk  per 
day  used  an  average  of  250  pounds  of  water.  These  figures 
show  that  the  water  requirement  is  in  proportion  to  the 
milk  produced  and  the  food  consumed.  They  also  show  that 
the  question  of  water  supply  is  much  more  important  for 
the  cow  in  milk  than  for  the  dry  cow.  Dry  cows  need  not 
be  watered  more  than  once  daily  in  winter  time  and  do  not 
seem  to  want  it  oftener.  During  the  summer  the  demand 
for  water  is  greater  on  account  of  the  greater  evaporation 
from  the  skin.  Cows  on  heavy  feed,  producing  large  quan- 
tities of  milk,  should  always  have  access  to  water  at  least 
twice  daily.  For  the  best  results,  water  of  good  quality  should 
be  supplied  close  at  hand,  since  if  the  animals  are  required  to 
walk  long  distances  in  cold  weather,  they  may  not  drink  a 
sufficient  amount  and  the  milk  flow  may  be  reduced  for  this 
reason.  Water  contaminated  by  drainage  from  barnyards 
or  with  sewage  should  be  avoided  for  sanitary  reasons,  as 


126  DAIRY  FARMING 

well  as  for  the  additional  reason  that  cows  may  not  drink  as 
much  as,is  needed  for  the  best  results. 

In  very  cold  climates  it  is  profitable  to  warm  the  water 
for  dairy  cows.  It  is  cheaper  to  warm  the  water  with  a  tank 
heater  by  burning  coal  or  wood  than  to  supply  the  necessary 
heat  by  allowing  the  animal  to  burn  high-priced  feed  in  its 
body  for  this  purpose.  A  cow  producing  25  pounds  of  milk 
daily  requires  about  1  pound  of  corn  daily  to  warm  the  water 
used  if  it  be  given  at  the  freezing  point.  Larger  producers 
would  require  a  correspondingly  larger  amount  for  this  pur- 
pose. An  even  more  important  reason  for  warming  water 
is  that  a  heavy-milking  cow  will  not  drink  enough  water  if 
it  is  near  the  freezing  temperature.  The  activities  of  the 
organs  of  digestion  and  milk  secretion  are  almost  stopped 
for  a  while  if  a  cow  drinks  30  or  40  pounds  of  ice  water. 
Where  water  is  warmed  it  is  generally  brought  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  60°  F. 

117.  Turning  on  Pasture.  Cattle  are  pastured  in  summer 
over  the  greater  part  of  this  country  and  every  owner  of  a 
cow  welcomes  the  time  when  the  cow  may  be  turned  out  to 
pasture.  In  changing  from  dry  to  green  feed  it  is  best  to  go 
somewhat  slowly,  especially  with  heavy-milking  cows.  The 
young  immature  grasses  are  mostly  water  and  it  is  almost 
impossible  for  a  heavy-milking  cow  to  eat  enough  to  supply 
the  necessary  nutrients. 

Another  reason  for  making  the  change  slowly  is  the  effect 
upon  the  taste  of  the  milk.  When  a  cow  is  changed  suddenly 
from  grain  to  grass,  the  milk  may  be  given  a  strong  taste ; 
while  if  this  change  is  made  gradually,  little  or  no  change  in 
taste  is  noticed. 

A  common  mistake  is  to  pasture  too  closely^  in  the  fall  and 
to  turn  out  too  early  in  the  spring.  The  cows  should  be 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  127 

kepi  off  the  pasture  until  the  grass  is  well  started.  Grass 
can  only  grow  by  having  leaves  above  the  ground  in  contact 
with  the  air  and  sunshine.  If  the  cattle  are  turned  out  to 
graze  while  the  grass  is  very  short,  its  growth  is  slow  since 
it  h;is  no  chance  to  get  enough  leaves  to  prepare  its  food. 

118.  Feeding  Grain  while  on  Pasture.  The  cow  that 
produces  a  small  quantity  will  give  but  little  if  any  more  if 
fed  i^rain  while  on  pasture.  However,  with  the  very  heavy- 
producing  cow  the  case  is  quite  different,  and  it  is  necessary 
that  she  be  fed  some  grain  or  she  will  not  continue  long  on 
the  high  level  of  milk  production.  The  high-producing  cow 
cannot  eat  and  digest  a  sufficient  amount  of  grass  to  supply 
the  necessary  nutrients  and  must  have  some  concentrated 
feed  in  order  to  continue  to  produce  large  quantities  of  milk. 

Experiments  made  by  the  Cornell  University  Experiment 
Station  covering  four  years  showed  that  while  an  increase 
of  milk  yield  was  obtained  from  grain  feeding  it  was  not 
economical  to  produce  it  in  this  way.  Only  about  one  addi- 
tional pound  of  milk  was  obtained  for  each  pound  of  grain 
fed.  In  these  experiments  the  pasture  furnished  an  abun- 
dance of  grasses.  It  was  observed,  however,  that  the  cows 
that  had  grain  during  the  summer  gave  better  results  after 
the  grazing  season  was  over  than  those  that  received  no  grain. 
This  is  also  a  matter  of  common  observation  by  dairymen  and 
should  be  taken  into  account  in  considering  the  question  of 
summer  feeding.  The  practice  of  the  writer  in  regard  to  grain 
feeding  on  pasture  is  represented  in  the  following  statement : 

Jersey  or  Guernsey  cow,  producing  : 

20  pounds  milk  daily  2  pounds  grain  daily 

25  pounds  milk  daily  3  pounds  grain  daily 

30  pounds  milk  daily  6  pounds  grain  daily 

35  pounds  milk  daily  8  pounds  grain  daily 


128  DAIRY  FARMING 

Holstein,  Shorthorn,  or  Ayrshire,  producing : 

25  pounds  milk  daily  2  pounds  grain  daily 

30  pounds  milk  daily  3  pounds  grain  daily 

35  pounds  milk  daily  5  pounds  grain  daily 

40  pounds  milk  daily  7  pounds  grain  daily 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  this  applies  only  when  pas- 
tures are  abundant.  When  a  small  amount  of  grain  is  fed 
as  a  supplement  to  pasture,  little  attention  is  necessary  as 
to  the  relative  amount  of  protein  and  carbohydrates  that 
it  contains.  When  corn  is  the  cheapest  grain,  it  may  be  fed 
alone  if  desired.  Any  mixture  of  common  concentrates 
serves  the  purpose,  since  it  is  total  digestible  nutrients  that  is 
needed  and  the  protein  is  usually  supplied  in  ample  amounts 
by  the  grass.  When  larger  amounts  of  grain  are  fed,  more 
care  must  be  taken  to  have  enough  protein. 

119.  Providing  for  Periods  of  Short  Pasture.  Unfortu- 
nately the  season  of  abundant  pastures  is  often  short.  In 
many  localities  a  dry  period  of  several  weeks  often  occurs 
at  times  during  the  summer  season.  It  is  probable  that  as 
much  loss  occurs  from  improper  feeding  at  such  times  as 
is  caused  by  improper  feeding  during  the  winter.  As  long 
as  the  cows  are  on  pasture,  and  other  work  is  pressing,  the 
farmer  is  inclined  to  let  the  cows  get  along  the  best  they  can. 

It  is  well  known  to  all  experienced  dairymen  that  if  a 
cow  is  once  allowed  to  decline  in  her  milk  production,  it  is 
difficult  to  bring  her  back  to  normal.  To  make  a  large 
profit  from  the  cow,  a  large  yearly  production  must  be  had 
and  to  obtain  this  ordinarily  requires  that  the  flow  of  milk 
be  kept  up  for  10  months  out  of  the  year.  It  is  possible  to 
supplement  short  pasture  by  the  feeding  of  grain,  but  this  is 
as  a  rule  unnecessarily  expensive.  It  will  pay,  however,  if 
no  other  feed  is  available.  Provision  for  short  pasture  is 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  129 

best  made  either  by  having  green  crops  on  hand  that  may  be 
cut  for  feed,  or  by  feeding  silage  or  alfalfa  hay  during  this 
period.  The  use  of  green  crops  cut  and  taken  to  the  animals 
is  known  as  the  soiling  system.  In  recent  years  the  use  of 
corn  silage  for  summer  feeding  is  meeting  with  the  greatest 
favor  and  promises  to  displace  the  practice  of  soiling  to  a 
large  extent,  because  it  is  much  less  expensive.  For  summer 
feeding  a  silo  of  small  diameter  is  recommended  in  order  that 
the  silage  may  be  fed  fast  enough  to  prevent  spoiling.  If  the 
silage  is  not  needed  it  can  be  kept  for  winter  use. 

120.  Amount  to  Feed.  One  of  the  most  common  mistakes 
made  in  feeding  cows  is  in  not  feeding  them  enough.  If  a 
cow  does  not  respond  in  milk  yield  when  well  fed,  she  should 
be  ;-old.  The  cheapest  production  is  obtained  from  a  high- 
producing  cow  well  fed.  The  cow  may  be  looked  upon  as 
a  milk-producing  machine,  which  we  supply  with  the  raw 
material  in  the  form  of  feed.  This  raw  material  is  manu- 
factured into  milk.  The  same  rule  holds  as  with  any  manu- 
facturing plant;  it  is  run  most  economically  near  its  full 
capacity.  One  should  understand  that,  first  of  all,  the  animal 
must  use  a  certain  amount  of  its  food  to  maintain  the  body. 
This  is  called  the  ration  of  maintenance  and  is  practically 
the  same  whether  the  animal  is  being  utilized  for  full  capacity 
or  merely  being  kept  without  producing  any  milk  at  all. 
About  50  per  cent  of  all  the  feed  she  can  consume  is  used  by 
a  medium  dairy  cow  for  this  purpose.  It  is  evident  that 
after  going  to  this  expense  it  is  the  poorest  economy  to  re- 
fuse; to  give  the  other  50  per  cent  of  a  full  ration,  which  would 
be  used  entirely  for  milk  production.  Since  only  half  of  a 
full  ration  is  available  for  making  milk,  it  is  clear  that  if 
through  mistaken  ideas  of  economy  the  cow  is  fed  75  per  cent 
of  a  full  ration  the  amount  she  has  available  for  producing 


130  DAIRY  FARMING 

milk  is  reduced  50  per  cent.  The  heavy-milking  cow  is  the 
one  most  commonly  underfed.  It  is  often  observed  that 
heavy-milking  cows  rapidly  get  thin  in  flesh  after  calving  and 
may  drop  greatly  in  the  amount  of  milk  within  a  short  time. 
This  is  the  result  of  underfeeding.  If  a  certain  cow  has  a 
capacity  to  produce  only  25  pounds  of  milk  daily  and  is  al- 
ready receiving  enough  feed  for  this  amount,  it  is  a  waste  of 
feed  to  increase  her  ration  as  she  will  not  correspondingly 
increase  in  milk.  If  a  cow  of  this  type  is  given  more  feed 
than  she  needs,  she  uses  part  of  it  for  laying  on  fat  and  soon 
commences  to  appear  smooth  and  beefy.  The  practical 
question  arises  then  as  to  what  means  may  be  employed  to 
determine  how  much  feed  a  certain  cow  needs.  The  most 
accurate  plan  is  to  calculate  the  ration  according  to  the  feed- 
ing standard  as  described  in  paragraph  92. 

There  are  in  addition  certain  observations  that  may  be 
made  the  basis  of  practical  feeding  operations.  One  is  the 
condition  of  the  animal  in  regard  to  flesh.  The  inclination 
to  give  milk  is  so  strong  in  a  good  cow  that  when  underfed 
she  will  continue  for  some  time  to  give  more  than  is  provided 
for  by  her  ration  and  will  supply  the  remaining  material  that  is 
required  from  her  body.  This  results  in  a  gradual  loss  in 
weight.  When  a  cow  in  milk  loses  weight,  it  means  that 
she  is  underfed  and  unless  her  ration  is  increased  soon  she 
will  drop  materially  in  milk  yield.  On  the  other  hand  if  a 
cow  in  milk  is  gaining  in  weight,  it  is  evident  that  she  is 
getting  more  feed  than  she  is  using  and  her  ration  may  be 
cut  down. 

Another  suggestion  is  to  note  carefully  the  amount  of  milk 
the  cow  produces  at  her  best,  which  will  be  within  a  short 
time  after  calving.  Then  be  sure  to  feed  enough  to  sup- 
port this  amount  of  milk  production.  Later,  as  she  declines, 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  131 

due  to  the  advance  in  the  lactation  period,  reduce  the  feed  to 
correspond  to  the  decline  in  milk. 

The  following  rules  serve  as  a -general  guide  for  practical 
feeding : 

1 .  Feed  all  the  roughage  the  cows  will  eat  up  clean  at  all 
times. 

2 .  Feed  1  pound  of  grain  per  day  for  each  pound  of  fat 
produced  per  week,  or  1  pound  of  grain  per  day  for  each 

3  pounds  of  milk  produced  by  Jersey ;  3|  by  Ayrshire ;  and 

4  by  Holstein. 

3.  Feed  all  that  the  cows  will  take  without  gaining  in 
weight. 

Ic  is  best  to  become  accustomed  to  thinking  in  terms  of 
wei  g;ht  rather  than  in  terms  of  measure  in  calculating  rations 
and  feeding  dairy  cows.  It  is  often  more  convenient  when 
feeding  to  measure  than  to  weigh  the  feed.  The  most  prac- 
tical plan  generally  is  to  feed  with  a  measure  and  weigh  the 
feed  mixture  used  often  enough  to  make  it  possible  to  esti- 
mate closely  how  much  is  required  by  measure  to  give  the 
weight  desired. 

121.  The  Balanced  Ration.  The  most  common  mistake 
made  in  feeding  dairy  cows,  next  to  underfeeding,  is  giving 
too  little  protein.  This  mistake  is  especially  common  in 
the  corn-belt  on  account  of  the  wide  use  of  corn  and  timothy 
hay,  both  very  deficient  in  protein.  Where  alfalfa  hay  is 
fed  the  ration  nearly  always  has  enough  protein.  A  milking 
cow  must  use  a  certain  amount  of  protein,  and  no  other 
material  can  take  its  place.  A  ration  is  said  to  be  balanced 
when  the  protein  and  carbohydrates  are  in  the  right  pro- 
portion. 

It  is  not  possible  to  make  a  good  ration  by  using  corn  and 
timothy  hay  unless  large  quantities  of  mill  feeds  rich  in 


132  DAIRY  FARMING 

protein  are  fed.  In  formulating  a  ration  the  roughage  is 
the  first  consideration,  since  the  character  of  this  portion 
largely  determines  the  kind  of  grain  to  be  fed.  The  cheapest 
source  of  protein  is  generally  leguminous  hay,  such  as  clover, 
alfalfa,  or  cowpea.  If  an  abundance  of  any  one  of  these 
can  be  grown,  the  problem  of  making  an  economical  ration 
is  greatly  simplified.  If  alfalfa  hay  is  fed,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  use  concentrates  that  are  rich  in  proteins.  If  mixed 
hay  and  corn  silage  are  used,  at  least  one-third  of  the  grain 
should  be  rich  in  protein. 

122.  Succulent  Feed.     In  order  to  obtain  the  best  re- 
sults it  is  necessary  to  have  a  portion  of  the  ration  of  a  suc- 
culent character.     This  term  is  applied  to  feeds  that  contain 
much  water,  such  as  green  grass,  corn  silage,  roots,  and 
cabbage.     Such  feeds  seem  to  have  a  value  outside  of  the 
actual  nutrients  they  contain  on  account  of  the  favorable 
effect  upon  the  digestion  of  the  animal.     In  the  corn-belt, 
corn  silage  furnishes  the  cheapest  and  best  succulent  feed 
for  winter.     In  other  sections,  especially  north  of  the  corn- 
belt,  the  growing  of  root  crops  is  generally  practicable.    They 
supply  this  desirable  element  of  the  ration  in  an  entirely 
satisfactory  form. 

123.  Palatability  of  the  Ration.     An  animal  will  give  better 
results  if  it  relishes  its  ration.     Sometimes  even  if  a  feed 
containing  enough  nutrients  is  offered,  a  sufficient  amount 
is  not  eaten  on  account  of  a  lack  of  palatability.     Hay  and 
other  coarse  feeds  show  the  most  variation  in  this  respect, 
depending  upon  time  of  cutting  and  manner  of  curing.    It 
is  advisable  to  have  the  grain  composed  of  a  mixture  of  two 
kinds  or  more  as  this  increases  palatability.     A  ration  for 
very  high-producing  cows   should  be  a  mixture  of  five  or 
six  feedstuff s.     Succulent  feeds  are  always  palatable  and 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  133 

they  aid  digestion  by  keeping  the  animal  in  good  condition. 
When  a  good  ration  has  been  selected  there  is  no  reason  for 
chi]  nge  for  the  sake  of  variety.  If  the  animal  craves  a  change 
in  ration,  it  is  an  indication  that  the  ration  it  has  been  receiv- 
ing is  deficient  in  some  particular. 

124.  Order    of    Feeding.     Regularity    in    feeding    is    of 
greater  importance  than  any  special  routine.     The  common 
pm  ctice  is  to  feed  twice  daily  giving  about  one-half  the  grain 
and  roughage  at  each  feed.     The  grain  is  generally  fed  first 
ami  the  hay  feeding  reserved  until  the  milking  is  done  to 
avoid  having  dust  in  the  barn.     Silage  should  also  be  fed 
aft  or  milking  to  prevent  possible  odors  in  the  milk.     The 
co\\r  readily  becomes  accustomed  to  a  certain  routine  and 
this  should  not  be  varied  any  more  than  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary.    She  may  be  accustomed  to  receive  grain  either  before 
or  .after  milking,  or  be  easily  taught  to  demand  it  while  the 
milking  is  being  done. 

FEEDING  Cows  FOR  THE  MAXIMUM  PRODUCTION  IN 
OFFICIAL  TESTS 

125.  Obtaining   the    Maximum   Production.     The   maxi- 
mum production  is  obtained  from  high-producing  cows  by 
a  combination   of  expert  handling  and  the  best   possible 
ration.     Such  cows  cannot  be  fed  entirely  by  any  rule,  nor 
can  their  ration  be  calculated  by  a  formula.     The  individual 
animal  and  her  characteristics  must  be  taken  into  account. 
One  of  the  essential  things  is  having  the  animal  in  the  proper 
condition  of  flesh  at  calving.     She  should  be  dry  for  two 
months  or  more  for  the  best  results,  and  be  fed  a  liberal 
amount  of  grain  during  this  period.     Some  form  of  suc- 
culence is   absolutely  necessary  as   a   part   of  the  ration. 
Roots,  such  as  common  beets,  sugar  beets,  or  mangels  are 


134  DAIRY  FARMING 

even  better  than  silage  for  this  purpose,  and  may  be  fed  up 
to  50  pounds  or  more  per  day. 

The  cow  must  be  brought  up  to  the  full  ration  carefully 
after  calving,  using  about  three  weeks  for  this  purpose.  The 
grain  ration  should  consist  of  a  mixture  of  several  concen- 
trates, all  of  which  are  palatable.  So  long  as  the  animal  re- 
mains in  normal  condition,  no  change  in  the  grain  ration  is 
necessary.  Special  attention  must  be  given  to  the  physical 
condition  of  the  cow.  A  careful  herdsman  always  closely 
observes  the  character  of  the  dung  excreted,  and  learns 
to  judge  when  the  digestion  is  normal.  At  the  first 
indication  of  lack  of  a  keen  appetite  the  ration  is  cut  down 
until  the  animal  is  again  in  condition  to  utilize  the  full 
amount.  If  the  digestion  gives  indication  of  even  slight 
disorder,  a  purgative,  such  as  Epsom  salts,  1  to  1J  pounds 
at  a  dose,  should  be  administered  at  once.  The  grain 
should  always  be  eaten  with  a  relish,  and  the  animal 
should  show  a  disposition  to  want  a  little  more  than  she 
receives. 

A  ration  for  a  heavy-milking  cow  must  be  rich  in 
protein.  Much  more  grain  should  be  fed  in  proportion 
to  the  roughage  than  with  an  ordinary  producer.  In 
fact,  for  the  maximum  production  of  a  great  producer, 
the  nutrients  will  need  to  be  largely  supplied  by  con- 
centrates. 

The  following  daily  ration  was  fed  by  the  writer  to  a  Jersey 
cow  that  was  producing  daily  40  pounds  of  milk,  containing 
2  pounds  of  fat.  The  cow  weighed  about  900  pounds  and 
produced  during  the  year  13,895  pounds  of  milk  and  680 
pounds  of  fat.  The  same  grain  mixture  was  fed  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  milking  period,  including  the  pasture 
season. 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  135 

POUNDS 

Corn  silage    .     . 15. 

Alfalfa  hay    .     . 15. 

Corn  meal 3.5 

Bran 3.5 

Oats 3.5 

Oil  meal         1.5 

Total  roughage  per  day 30., 

Total  grain  per  day 12. 

A  Holstein  cow  under  charge  of  the  author  was  fed  the 
following  amounts  daily  while  producing  an  average  of  100 
pounds  of  milk  daily. 

POUNDS 

Corn  silage 15. 

Alfalfa  hay         20. 

Dried  beet  pulp 4. 

Corn  meal 6.1 

Bran 6.1 

Oats 6.1 

Gluten  feed        1.9 

Linseed  meal 1.9 

Cottonseed  meal 1.9 

Total  roughage 35. 

Total  concentrates 28. 

The  grain  ration  was  prepared  by  mixing  100  pounds 
each  of  corn,  bran,  and  oats,  and  30  pounds  each  of  the  last 
three  named  above.  One  pound  of  dried  beet  pulp  was  added 
to  six  pounds  of  the  grain  mixture  and  the  entire  mass 
moistened  with  water  some  time  before  feeding.  The  cow 
was  fed  and  milked  four  times  each  twenty-four  hours. 

QUESTIONS   AND    PROBLEMS 

1.  Distinguish  between  composition  of  a  feed,  digestible  nutri- 
ents, and  production  value. 

2.  Define  concentrate,  succulent,  roughage,  corn  stover. 

3.  What  succulent  winter  feeds  are  used  in  your  region  ? 

4.  What  common  feeds  of  your  region  are  high  in  protein  ? 


136  DAIRY  FARMING 

5.  Calculate  the  amounts  of  corn  and  clover  hay  required  to 
maintain  a  cow  weighing  1000  pounds. 

6.  Find  the  amount  of  protein  and  energy  required  for  a  1250- 
pound  cow  producing  40  pounds  of  milk  daily,  containing  3.5  per 
cent  -of  fat. 

7.  From  the  feeds  in  Table  15,  calculate  a  ration  that  will  sat- 
isfy the  conditions  in  problem  6.     How  does  the  ration  agree  with 
the  standards  on  page  304  ? 

8.  Find  the  protein  and  energy  in  the  following  rations : 

Ration  1  Ration  2 

Corn  silage 30  Ib.  Timothy  hay      .     .     .     .  12  Ib, 

Alfalfa  hay 10  Ib.         Corn  fodder 10  Ib. 

Corn 6  Ib.         Corn 6  Ib. 

Cottonseed  meal ...  1  Ib.         Bran 1  Ib. 

What  is  the  limiting  factor  in  the  second  ration  ? 
For  how  much  3.5  per  cent  milk  does  each  ration  supply  protein 
in  addition  to  maintaining  a  1000-pound  cow? 

9.  Calculate  a  ration  for  a  900-pound  Jersey  cow  giving  23 
pounds  of  milk  daily,  using  the  common  feeds  of  the  region. 

10.  When  bran  is  worth  $20,  cottonseed  meal  $30,  clover  hay  $10 
per  ton ;  and  corn  70  cents,  and  oats  50  cents  per  bushel,  find  which 
is  the  cheapest  source  of  protein.     Which  is  the  cheapest  source  of 
energy  ? 

11.  Obtain  the  local  prices  of  purchased  feeds  in  the  regioa 
Which  is  the  cheapest  source  of  energy?     Of  protein? 

12.  With  prices  given  in  problem   11,   calculate  the   cheapest 
possible   satisfactory  ration  for  a  Shorthorn   cow  weighing   1200 
pounds  and  giving  30  pounds  of  milk  daily. 

13.  Is  skim-milk  usually  available  for  calf  feeding  in  this  region? 
What  are  the  common  calf  feeds  used  ? 

14.  Let  each  student  find  the  approximate  amounts  of  milk  and 
other  feeds  used  in  raising  a  calf  to  six  months  of  age  for  his  own  farm 
or  some  other  farm.     At  normal  prices,  what  is  the  feed  worth? 
Have  all  these  reports  compared   and   averaged.     Compare  with 
results  on  pages  115,  250  and  252. 

16.  Proceed  in  a  similar  manner  to  find  the  usual  method  of  feed- 
ing heifers  in  the  region. 

16.  What  is  the  usual  date  for  turning  cows  to  pasture  in  your 
region?  About  what  times  are  they  taken  off  of  pasture  in  the 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


137 


fall?  At  what  time  are  the  pastures  not  likely  to  furnish  enough 
feed  ? 

17.  What  effect  does  the  manner  of  feeding  the  heifer  have  on 
the  amount  of  milk  that  she  is  likely  to  give  as  a  heifer?  As  a  ma- 
ture cow? 

13.  What  conclusion  would  you  draw  from  observing  that  a 
cow  when  giving  milk  was  gradually  getting  thinner?  What  con- 
clus  on  if  she  were  gaining  in  flesh? 


LABORATORY   EXERCISES 

9.  Raising  a  Calf.   Let  each  student  who  can  arrange  to  do  so, 
raiso  a  calf,  following  the  directions  that  apply  to  the  conditions. 
Ke<  p  track  of  all  the  feed  used,  and  see  if  the  calf  can  be  raised  at 
less  than  the  usual  cost.     This  is  particularly  important  in  regions 
where  whole  milk  is  sold. 

10.  Study  of  Feeding  on  a  Dairy  Farm.     Obtain  permission  to 
visii,  a  dairy  farm,  preferably  one  where  the  farmer  has  scales  that 
will  weigh  cattle ;  or  students  may  do  this  work  for  herds  on  their 
home  farms.     A  spring  balance  and  tape  measure  will  be  required. 

Make  a  list  of  the  cows  in  the  herd,  and  find  out  the  following 
facts  about  each.  Or  if  the  herd  is  too  large,  use  five  or  six  cows 
thai,  are  giving  different  amounts  of  milk.  Each  student  may  do 
the  work  for  one  cow. 


Cow  1 

Cow  2 

Cow  3 

Cow  4 

Age       

Breed  

Weight      

Pounds  milk 

Per  cent  fat  

Protein  for  maintenance  .... 
Protein  for  milk 

Total      

Protein  of  food  

Energy  for  maintenance  .... 
Energy  for  milk 

Total      

Energy  of  food  . 

Gaining  or  losing  flesh    .... 

138  DAIRY  FARMING 

How  much  milk  is  each  giving?  If  the  farmer  does  not  know, 
arrangements  can  be  made  to  have  one  student  or  the  farmer  weigh 
the  milk  for  one  or  two  days.  What  mixture  of  grain  is  fed? 
How  much  grain  is  each  getting?  If  the  farmer  does  not  know 
the  weight  of  a  day's  feed,  he  can  measure  out  what  he  is  using 
and  this  can  be  weighed.  What  does  the  grain  mixture  weigh  per 
quart?  In  the  same  way  the  amounts  of  silage  and  other  feeds 
may  be  obtained.  Weigh  each  cow.  Ask  the  farmer's  opinion 
as  to  which  cows  are  gaining  and  which  losing  in  flesh.  Obtain 
samples  of  milk  for  each  cow,  and  test  for  fat. 

Calculate  the  amount  of  energy  and  protein  for  maintenance 
of  each  cow,  the  amount  necessary  for  milk  production,  and  the 
amount  in  the  feed.  The  results  may  be  summarized  in  a  table  like 
the  one  shown  on  page  137. 

Does  it  seem  probable  that  any  one  of  the  cows  is  not  obtaining 
enough  protein  or  enough  energy?  Are  there  practical  ways  in 
which  the  ration  may  be  cheapened  by  using  different  feeds?  It 
may  be  that  the  farmer  will  be  willing  to  experiment  with  increasing 
or  decreasing  the  feed  or  with  using  a  different  mixture.  If  he  is 
willing  to  do  so,  the  results  should  be  followed  carefully. 

11.  Raising  Heifers.  Obtain  measurements  of  a  number  of 
heifers,  and  compare  with  the  results  on  page  122. 

COLLATERAL    READING 

Computing  Rations  for  Farm  Animals  by  Use  of  Energy  Values, 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  346. 

Handling  and  Feeding  Silage,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin 
578. 

The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulle- 
tin 22. 

Feeding  Skim-milk  Calves,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin 
233,  pp.  22-25. 

Feeds  and  Feeding,  Henry  and  Morrison. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  L.  H.  Bailey,  Vol.  Ill,  pp. 
56-118,  308,  310,  313-317. 

The  Feeding  of  Animals,  W.  H.  Jordan. 

Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,  C.  H.  Eckles,  pp.  254-294. 


CHAPTER  6 
THE    DAIRY   BARN 

C.  H.  ECKLES 

I'  is  only  within  recent  years  that  the  arrangement  and 
construction  of  the  dairy  barn  has  been  given  the  attention 
thai  its  importance  justifies.  It  pays  to  have  a  comfortable 


"Him 


FIG.  35.  —  Interior  of  a  well-arranged  barn. 

barn  on  account  of  the  larger  production  of  milk  which  re- 
sults. The  arrangement  of  the  barn  is  also  an  important 
factor  in  efficient  use  of  labor  and  in  keeping  the  workers 
contented.  There  is  a  growing  demand  for  better  sanitary 
conditions  surrounding  the  milk  supply,  and  this  means 

139 


140  DAIRY  FARMING 

that  barns  must  be  constructed  with  more  attention  to  those 
details  that  make  it  possible  to  keep  milk  clean. 

126.  General  Arrangement  of  Barns.  The  style  of  barn 
construction  will  necessarily  vary  with  the  locality,  climate, 
and  many  other  factors.  The  interior  arrangements  of  the 
cow  barn,  however,  may  be  much  the  same  in  barns  differ- 
ing widely  in  general  plan  of  construction.  The  most  com- 
mon arrangement  of  dairy  cows  in  a  barn  is  in  two  rows, 


82-0- 


"A"G-£ 


FIG.  36.  —  Floor  plan  of  a  good  barn  in  which  the  cows  face  the  center. 
The  calf  pens  and  milk  room  are  not  shown. 

facing  either  towards  the  center  or  towards  the  wall.  If  a 
manure  carrier  is  used,  it  is  most  convenient  to  have  the 
heads  together,  as  this  saves  time  in  feeding  with  no  loss  in 
cleaning.  If  a  wagon  is  to  be  driven  through  the  barn  for 
cleaning,  the  cows  should  face  the  wall.  More  than  two 
rows  require  that  the  barn  be  too  wide  for  efficient  lighting 
and  for  convenience  in  handling  the  cattle.  The  barn  should 
be  located  where  there  is  good  drainage  and  where  it  is  con- 
venient from  the  standpoint  of  labor. 

127.  Lighting.  One  of  the  most  serious  defects  in  many 
barns,  especially  in  old  ones,  is  lack  of  sufficient  light.  A 
light  barn  is  more  healthful  for  the  animals,  and  it  is  the 
first  step  toward  removing  the  objectionable  features  often 


THE  DAIRY  BARN 


141 


connected  with  dairy  work.  A  dark  barn  is  almost  always 
a  dii  ty  barn.  By  having  plenty  of  sunlight,  dirty  conditions 
are  easily  seen  and  are  usually  corrected.  There  should  be 
about  four  square  feet  of  glass  per  cow.  The  best  arrange- 
ment is  to  have  the  windows  extend  from  the  ceiling  about 


FIG.  37.  —  Floor  plan  of  a  barn  for  20  cows. 

halfway  to  the  floor,  as  this  makes  it  possible  for  the  sunlight 
to  reach  farther  into  the  barn. 

128.  The  Floor.  One  of  the  most  important  considerations 
of  all  is  the  floor.  A  satisfactory  floor  is  comfortable  for 
the  cows,  sanitary,  easily  cleaned,  durable,  and  not  too  ex- 
pensive. The  floors  most  commonly  used  are  wood,  con- 
crete;, or  dirt,  with  wood  or  concrete  gutters.  A  floor  of 
dirt,  although  comfortable  for  the  cows,  is  only  allowable 
under  conditions  where  it  is  not  possible  to  have  a  better 


142  DAIRY  FARMING 

one.  The  main  objection,  of  course,  is  that  it  cannot  be 
kept  clean.  A  fairly  good  arrangement  in  a  cheap  barn  is 
a  dirt  floor  for  the  cows  to  stand  upon  with  a  cement  gutter 
behind,  provided  with  a  strip  extending  forward  about  one 
foot  to  catch  the  urine.  A  tight  wooden  floor  is  comfortable 
for  the  cows  and  may  be  kept  in  good  sanitary  condition  if 


FIG.  38.  —  A  well-lighted  barn. 

in  good  repair.  The  main  objection  to  this  material  is  its 
high  first  cost  and  lack  of  durability.  Concrete  is  durable 
and  sanitary,  but  not  so  comfortable  for  the  cows  as  the  others. 
It  requires  a  liberal  use  of  bedding.  In  putting  in  a  con- 
crete floor  care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  surface  given  a 
rough  finish,  otherwise  the  animals  will  slip  and  sooner  or 
later  seriously  injure  themselves.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
make  the  floor  as  thick  as  is  sometimes  recommended. 
On  solid  earth  four  inches  is  as  good  as  more. 

129.  The  Platform.  The  best  arrangement  for  keeping 
cows  clean  is  the  platform  and  gutter.  It  is  well  to  have  the 
platform  about  6  inches  wider  at  one  end  than  at  the  other 


THE  DAIRY  BARN 


143 


so  that  the  cows  may  be  arranged  in  order  of  size  and  fit 
the  platform.  The  same  result  may  be  accomplished  by 
havi  tig  the  platform  on  one  side  of  the  barn  wider  than  that 


Fi  i.  39.  —  Cross  section  of  a  barn  with  cows  facing  the  center.  The  style 
of  ni  mger  may  be  varied  as  shown  in  Fig.  41.  The  length  of  the  platform 
shou  d  be  varied  to  suit  the  breed.  • 

on  1  he  other.  The  width  of  the  platform  from  manger  to 
guti  er  should  vary  to  suit  the  breed.  The  length  of  platform 
needed  for  animals  from  2  years  old  to  the  largest  cows  is 
give  n  in  Table  18. 

TA3LE  18.  —  LENGTH  OF  PLATFORM  REQUIRED  FOR  DIFFERENT 

BREEDS 


BREED 

SHORTEST 

LONGEST 

AVERAGE 

Jersey       .... 

48  inches 

56  inches 

54  inches 

Guernsey 

50  inches 

58  inches 

56  inches 

Ayrshire  .... 

50  inches 

58  inches 

56  inches 

Holstein  .... 

54  inches 

62  inches 

60  inches 

Shorthorn      .     .     . 

54  inches 

62  inches 

60  inches 

The  platform  should  slope  about  one  inch  from  the  manger 
to  the  gutter.  It  is  better  to  have  it  rise  half  the  way  back 
and  then  slope  to  the  gutter.  This  helps  to  prevent  the 
front  feet  from  slipping  and  causing  injury  to  the  knees.  A 
very  good  platform  can  be  made  by  laying  2  inches  of  con- 
crete, then  a  layer  of  tar  paper,  and  on  this  place  1J  to  2 
inches  of  concrete.  The  paper  extends  to  within  about  4 
inches  of  the  gutter.  The  tar  paper  prevents  moisture  from 


144 


DAIRY  FARMING 


rising  and,  by  stopping  the  loss  of  heat,  also  makes  the  con- 
crete warmer  for  the  cow  to  lie  on.  One  of  the  best  floor 
arrangements  is  one  in  which  the  floor,  manger,  and  passage- 
ways are  of  concrete  with  a  wooden  platform  on  top  of  the 

concrete  under  the  cows. 
In  this  case  two  inches 
of  concrete  under  the 
plank  is  sufficient  if 
placed  on  solid  ground. 
130.  The  Gutter.  The 
gutter  is  often  made  too 
shallow.  It  should  be 
preferably  about  8  or  9 
inches  deep  and  about 


FIG.  40.  —  Modern  stalls  and  ties.  Steel 
construction  gives  a  neat  appearance,  is 
sanitary,  strong,  and  durable. 


16  inches  wide  and  should 
be  tight  to  prevent  urine 
from  getting  under  the  floor.  A  common  plan  is  to  have  the 
passageway  behind  the  animals  2  to  4  inches  lower  than 
the  platform. 

131.  The  Stalls.     When  the  cow  is  tied  in  a  stanchion, 
the  stall  should  be  42  to  44  inches  wide  for  the  large  breeds, 
while  36  to  42  inches  is  sufficient  for  the  smaller  breeds. 
Partitions  are  used  in  many  barns,  but  some  dairymen  pre- 
fer to  dispense  with  them  for  the  sake  of  facilitating  the  move- 
ment of  the  cows  in  getting  in  and  out  of  the  stalls,  and  for 
convenience  in  doing  chores. 

132.  Mangers.     Concrete  is  the  best  material  for  mangers 
from  the  standpoint  of  sanitation  and  durability.     The  most 
common  type  of  concrete  manger  is  the  continuous,  which 
is  built  in  the  form  of  a  trough  before  the  cows.     By  having 
the  feed  alley  raised,  feed  can  be  swept  into  the  manger  with- 
out lifting.  (See  Fig.   36.)     The  main   advantage   of   this 


THE  DAIRY  BARN 


145 


stylo  is  the  ease  of  feeding  and  cleaning.  It  may  also  be  used 
for  .vatering  in  the  barn.  Some  objections  are  made  to  this 
stylo  of  construction  on  account  of  the  chance  it  affords  for 
one  cow  to  rob  another  of  a  portion  of  its  feed.  Partitions 


TYPES    OF    MANGERS 


FIG.  41.  —  Types  of  mangers. 

of  sheet  iron  or  concrete  are  sometimes  used  to  overcome  this 
difficulty. 

133.  Ties.  The  cow  should  be  fastened  so  that  she  lies 
down  exactly  where  she  stands  or  a  little  forward  if  possible. 
The  most  objectionable  way  is  to  tie  a  cow  to  a  manger  so 
that  she  must  back  up  to  lie  down.  This  results  in  covering 
the  cow  with  filth.  The  most  common  ties  in  use  are  various 
forms  of  stanchions.  There  is  no  better  way  to  keep  the  cow 
clean  than  to  tie  her  with  a  stanchion,  properly  constructed, 
and  stand  her  on  a  platform  of  the  right  dimensions  pro- 


146 


DAIRY  FARMING 


vided  with  a  gutter  of  sufficient  depth.  The  old  style  rigid 
stanchion  is  not  a  satisfactory  tie,  as  the  cow  has  no  free- 
dom and  cannot  lie  in  a  natural  position.  Many  forms  of 
stanchions  are  in  use  that  are  entirely  satisfactory.  These 
are  generally  hung  on  short  chains  at  top  and 
bottom  and  are  constructed  of  either  wood  or 
steel.  The  double  post  slip  chain  tie  is  equally 
comfortable  for  the  animals,  but  not  so  con- 
venient for  use.  Stanchion  or  chain  ties  may 
be  attached  to  either  iron  or  wooden  frame- 
work as  supports. 

134.  Ventilation.  An  abundance  of  fresh 
air  is  as  essential  as  plenty  of  feed.  The  most 
simple  form  of  ventilation  is  by  windows.  This 
works  best  when  the  sash  is  hinged  in  the  mid- 
dle or  at  the  bottom  so  that  the  air  can  be 
admitted  by  tipping  the  top  of  the  window  sash 
slightly  into  the  room.  This  throws  the  air 
towards  the  ceiling  and  away  from  the  animals. 
This  form  of  ventilation  can  be  used  satisfac- 
torily in  mild  climates.  In  northern  latitudes 
it  is  not  satisfactory  during  severe  weather  on 
account  of  the  difficulty  of  properly  controlling 
the  intake  of  air  during  rapid  changes  of  wind 
and  temperature. 

The  best  form  of  ventilation  yet  devised  is  the 
King  system.  This  consists  of  a  large  flue,  opening  near  the 
floor  and  extending  above  the  roof,  for  taking  out  foul  air.  A 
number  of  smaller  openings  arranged  at  intervals  of  10  to  12 
feet  along  the  walls  allow  for  the  intake  of  air.  The  intakes 
open  to  the  outer  air  near  the  ground,  pass  upwards  inside  the 
wall  and  open  into  the  barn  near  the  ceiling.  These  open- 


FIG.  42.  — 
A  common  tie 
for  dairy  cows. 
This  stanchion 
is  of  steel  with 
a  wooden  lin- 
ing and  hangs 
on  chains  at 
the  top  and 
bottom  to  al- 
low freedom  of 
movement. 


THE  DAIRY  BARN 


147 


ings  should  be  provided  with  means  for  closing  if  the  wind 
pressure  causes  too  rapid  movement  of  the  air. 

IS 5.  Cost  of  Barns.  The  price  of  milk,  climate,  cost  of 
mm  >er,  and  many  other  factors  influence  the  cost  of  dairy 
ban  s.  Where  milk  is  high  in  price  and  where  a  correspond- 
ing <  quality  is  demanded,  a  very  different  barn  will  be  required 
fron.  the  kind  needed 
who.i  milk  goes  to  the 
crea  tnery.  If  valuable 
pur<  -bred  stock  is  kept, 
a  so  ne what  more  expen- 
sive barn  may  be  justified 
thai  would  be  needed  for 
ordi  lary  cows,  because  a 
goou  barn  may  help  one 
to  soil  the  stock.  Some 
very  good  dairy  barns 
have,  been  built  where  «•«*  ARC  AT  CNO  OF  BARN 

FIG.  43.  —  Cross  section  of  a  barn  show- 
ing the  King  system  of  ventilation. 


The 

air  enters  near  the  ceiling  on  the  sides  and 
is  drawn  out  through  large  flues  opening 
near  the  floor. 


lumber    is    moderate   in 

price   at   a   cost   of   $50 

per    cow.      Unless    milk 

sells  at  a  very  high  price, 

one  should  certainly  hesitate  to  spend  more  than  $100  per 

cow  for  the  barn,  including  milk  room,  and  silo,  and  storage 

place  for  the  other  dairy  feeds. 

On  the  corn-belt  farm,  where  few  cows  are  kept  and  where 
there  is  an  abundance  of  straw,  the  cows  may  run  in  an  open 
shed.  If  there  is  a  milking  shed  in  which  the  cows  are  milked 
and  fed  grain,  very  clean  milk  may  be  obtained.  No  system 
is  better  for  the  health  of  the  animals  than  running  loose 
in  a  good  shed,  but  where  dairying  is  made  the  primary 
business  a  regular  dairy  barn  is  ordinarily  desired. 


148  DAIRY  FARMING 

QUESTIONS  AND   PROBLEMS 

1.  What  materials  are  used  for  barn  floors  in  your  region? 
Describe    the   floor   in    some    good    barn,   and    tell    how  it  was 
made. 

2.  What  different  kinds  of  stanchions  are  used  ? 

3.  Are  manure  carriers  used  in  any  barns?     If  so,  what  kind  is 
used,  and  what  did  it  cost? 

4.  Does  any  barn  in  the  region  have  the  King  system  of  ventila- 
tion?    If  so,  describe  it. 

5.  If  any  barn  has  been  built  in  the  region  in  the  past  few  years, 
find  the  cost  per  cow. 

6.  Draw  a  floor  plan  for  a  barn  to  hold  6  horses,  15  cows,  and 
young  stock.     Or  change  the  numbers  of  stock  to  suit  the  condi- 
tions.    Show  dimensions  of  stalls,  mangers,  etc.,  and  location  of 
milk  house. 


LABORATORY   EXERCISES 

12.  Study  of  a  Barn.  Arrange  with  the  owner  to  visit  a  good 
dairy  barn  in  the  region,  and  study  its  general  arrangement.  A 
tape  measure  and  thermometer  will  be  required. 

Some  of  the  points  to  be  determined  are  as  follows : 

Length,  width,  height  of  posts,  height  of  peak,  height  of  ceiling 
in  cow  barn. 

Capacity  for  hay,  silage,  grain.     See  page  305. 

Make  a  diagram  of  a  cross  section  of  the  floor  similar  to  figure  39, 
indicating  the  dimensions  of  the  feed  alley,  manger,  platform, 
gutter,  etc. 

How  wide  a  place  is  allowed  for  each  cow  ? 

What  kind  of  stanchions  are  used  ?     What  did  they  cost  ? 

How  many  cubic  feet  of  air  space  is  there  per  cow? 

What  system  of  ventilation  is  used?  Did  the  air  appear  to  be 
good  when  you  entered  the  barn  ?  What  is  the  temperature  in  the 
barn? 

•How  are  the  windows  arranged?  How  many  square  feet  of 
glass  is  there  per  cow? 

Is  there  a  milk  house  ?  How  many  feet  must  be  traveled  with  the 
milk  from  each  cow? 

Are  the  arrangements  for  feeding  the  cows  and  for  cleaning  the 
barn  convenient? 


THE  DAIRY  BARN  149 

COLLATERAL    READING 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  L.  H.  Bailey,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
245  260. 

Ice  Houses  and  the  Use  of  Ice  on  the  Dairy  Farm,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr  ,  Farmers'  Bulletin  623. 

^  Plan  for  a  Small  Dairy  House,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulle- 
tin <  .89. 

1  ightning  and  Lightning  Conductors,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers' 
Bui  etin367. 

]  fomemade  Silos,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  589. 

^  entilation  for  Dwellings,  Rural  Schools  and  Stables,  F.  H.  King. 

(  ost  of  Fencing  Farms  in  the  North  Central  States,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr  ,  Bulletin  321. 


CHAPTER   7 

COMMON   AILMENTS    OF    CATTLE 
C.  H.  ECKLES 

THE  author  makes  no  attempt  at  giving  directions  for 
the  treatment  of  such  diseases  and  accidents  as  call  for  the 
services  of  the  competent  veterinarian.  The  farmer  should 
depend  largely  upon  the  qualified  veterinarian  as  his  adviser 
in  matters  concerning  the  health  of  his  animals,  but  there 
are  certain  common  troubles  that  every  manager  of  dairy 
cows  should  know  how  to  handle.  The  discussion  which 
follows  aims  to  present  a  few  of  the  facts  that  every  dairy- 
man should  know.  The  discussions  are  in  the  nature  of 
advice  for  the  owner  of  dairy  stock  and  are  not  expected  to 
take  the  place  of  expert  advice  by  the  veterinarian. 

NORMAL  CONDITIONS 

136.  The  Pulse.  The  heart  of  the  cow  normally  beats 
50  to  60  times  per  minute.  It  is  more  rapid  in  young  animals 
than  in  old,  and  is  increased  by  excitement  or  exercise.  The 
most  convenient  way  to  take  the  pulse  of  a  cow  is  to  stand 
on  her  left  side  and  reach  over  the  neck  and  feel  the  pulse 
on  the  lower  side  of  the  right  jaw.  A  quick,  bounding  pulse 
indicates  inflammation  at  some  point  in  the  body.  The 
trained  veterinarian  becomes  very  skillful  in  diagnosing  dis- 
ease by  the  feeling  of  the  pulse. 

150 


COMMON  AILMENTS   OF  CATTLE  151 

137.  Temperature.     The  normal  temperature  of  a  cow 
usually  varies  between  99°  and  103°  F.     The  temperature  is 
tal  en  by  means  of  a  self-registering,  or  clinical,  thermometer. 
Be  'ore  using  it  the  mercury  is  shaken  down.     The  instrument 
is  olaced  in  the  rectum  for  at  least  three  minutes   before 
tb<   reading  is  made. 

V  rise  in  temperature  indicates  fever  due  to  inflammation 
at  some  point  in  the  body.  A  rise  of  4  degrees  is  serious, 
wl  ile  as  much  as  6  degrees  is  dangerous.  A  sudden  fall  in 
temperature  is  also  serious.  The  dairyman  should  provide 
himself  with  a  good  clinical  thermometer  and  become  fa- 
miliar with  its  use. 

138.  Respiration.     A  cow  normally  breathes  from  10  to 
25  times  per  minute.     Rapid  breathing  may  be  caused  by 
exercise,  heat,  or  excitement,  or  by  distention  of  the  stomach 
with  gaseous  food  to  such  an  extent  that  the  lung  capacity 
is  diminished.     Rapid,  short,  or  difficult  breathing  usually 
signifies  trouble  with  the  respiratory  organs. 

139.  The  Excretions.     The  excretions  of  an  animal,  the 
urine  and  feces,  or  dung,  show  the  general  condition  of  the 
digestive  tract  and  kidneys.     The  stockman  should  be  quick 
to  observe  any  abnormality  in  this  respect  and  determine 
the  cause  if  possible.     It  is  especially  important  to  observe 
the  feces  of  the  cow  when  she  is  under  conditions  of  high 
feeding  as  this  is  the  best  index  of  the  state  of  her  digestion. 
The  knowledge  necessary  to  interpret  the  various  conditions 
that  appear  can  only  be  had  by  experience  and  observation. 

INSTRUMENTS  AND  MEDICINES 

140.  Instruments   and   Medicine.     Every   manager   of  a 
herd  of  dairy  cattle  should  be  prepared  for  the  ordinary  emer- 
gencies.    If  a  competent  veterinarian  is  not  readily  accessi- 


152 


DAIRY  FARMING 


ble,  this  is  all  the  more  important.  The  following  instru- 
ments and  medicines  are  most  often  needed,  and  it  is 
advisable  to  have  them  on  hand  : 

Milk  fever  outfit,  if  high-producing  cows  are  kept 

2  milk  tubes  of  different  sizes 

3  teat  plugs  of  different  sizes 

Trocar,  if  there  is  much  trouble  from  bloating 
Syringe 

Drenching  bottle 
Clinical  thermometer 

A  liberal  amount  of  carbolic  acid  or  some  other  good  dis- 
infectant should  always  be  on  hand,  as  frequent  use  will  be 
found  for  it.  Crude  carbolic  acid  can  be  used  in  a  2  per  cent 
solution,  when  applied  to  the  animal's  body,  or  in  a  5  per 
cent  solution  for  disinfecting  other  objects,  such 
as  the  floor  of  the  barn,  or  instruments. 

An  abundant  supply  of  Epsom  salts  should 
also  be  provided,  as  occasion  for  using  it  will 
come  often.  In  most  herds  entirely  too  little 
use  is  made  of  this  important  medicine.  A 
dose  of  1  to  1 1  pounds  of  salts  for  the  grown 
animal  should  be  the  first  treatment  in  nearly 
all  cases  of  sickness.  In  every  case  where  an 
animal  shows  loss  of  appetite  or  sickness  the 
cause  of  which  is  not  known,  a  physic  should 
be  given  at  once  and  the  feed  reduced.  A 
second  dose  after  three  or  four  days  is  often  beneficial.  If 
the  appetite  of  the  animal  has  returned,  the  ration  can  again 
be  increased  to  the  normal. 

141.  Drenching  a  Cow.  The  common  method  of  admin- 
istering medicine  to  a  cow  is  to  mix  with  water  and  give  from 
a  bottle.  This  is  known  as  a  "  drench."  When  giving  a 


FIG.  44.— 
Milking  tubes, 
used  when 
teats  are  in- 
jured or  sore. 


COMMON  AILMENTS  OF   CATTLE  153 

drc  nch,  the  head  of  the  animal  should  be  elevated  by  tying, 
or  it  may  be  held  by  an  assistant.  The  operator  stands  on 
th<  left  side,  and  grasps  the  nose-  with  the  thumb  and  fingers 
in  the  nostrils.  The  bottle  used  should  be  adapted  for  the 
pu  -pose,  having  a  long,  strong  neck.  The  mouth  of  the 
bo  tie  should  be  inserted  in  front  of  the  back  teeth  resting 
on  the  tongue  as  far  back  as  the  middle.  If  the  animal 
coi  tghs,  the  head  should  be  at  once  lowered  to  allow  the  liquid 
to  escape  from  the  windpipe.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  med- 
ici  le  may  pass  down  into  the  lungs,  and  cause  sickness. 
Ui  less  there  is  some  special  reason  for  doing  so,  it  is  not 
cu  itomary  to  give  over  1  to  2  quarts  at  a  time.  Unless  the 
he  -dsman  is  thoroughly  informed  regarding  the  treatment  of 
cattle  ailments,  he  will  seldom  have  occasion  to  administer 
medicine  other  than  Epsom  or  Glauber  salts  except  under 
th<!  direction  of  a  veterinarian. 

COMMON  AILMENTS 

142.  Milk  Fever.  Milk  fever  occurs  only  with  high-pro- 
ducing cows.  It  never  affects  a  cow  with  her  first  calf  and 
rarely  with  the  second.  The  well-fed,  heavy-milking  cow 
is  ihe  one  most  likely  to  be  stricken.  The  disease  is  so  typi- 
cal that  it  is  easily  recognized.  In  practically  every  case 
it  occurs  within  48  hours  after  calving.  Every  heavy-milk- 
ing cow  should  be  watched  carefully  until  this  time  has 
elapsed.  The  first  symptoms  are  restlessness  and  excite- 
ment. Within  a  short  time  paralysis  of  the  hind  legs  be- 
gins, resulting  in  a  staggering  gait.  The  animal  soon  falls 
and  is  unable  to  rise.  The  cow  assumes  a  characteristic 
position,  which  is  of  great  value  in  diagnosing  the  disease. 
The  head  is  turned  to  one  side  and  rests  on  the  chest  with  the 
muzzle  pointing  towards  the  flank.  When  this  position  is 


154 


DAIRY  FARMING 


assumed,  the  cow  becomes  unconscious  and  remains  so  until 
death,  which  occurs  within  about  24  hours  if  treatment  is 
not  given.  Fortunately  the  air  treatment,  which  was  dis- 
covered a  few  years  ago  by  Anderson  in  Denmark,  makes  it 
possible  to  relieve  nearly  every  case. 
When  this  is  properly  applied,  the  cow 
will  recover  completely  within  a  few 
hours  and  no  bad  effects  follow.  With- 
out treatment,  recovery  seldom  occurs. 
An  approved  apparatus  is  shown  in 
Fig.  45.  The  essential  parts  are  a 
milk  tube,  a  receptacle  of  some  kind 
in  which  clean  cotton  is  placed  to  catch 
the  dust  in  the  air  pumped  through  it, 
and  a  rubber  bulb  or  pump  of  some 
kind.  In  case  a  regular  apparatus  is 
not  at  hand,  one  that  will  serve  the 
purpose  can  be  improvised  from  mate- 
rials generally  found  in  a  drug  store. 

In  using  the  apparatus  the  operator 
should  first  thoroughly  clean  his  hands, 
likewise  the  cow's  udder  and  teats, 
with  warm  water  and  soap,  followed 
by  a  2  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic 
acid  or  creolin.  That  portion  of  the  apparatus  which 
holds  the  cotton,  the  rubber  tube,  and  milk  tube,  must  be 
clean,  and  preferably  boiled  for  15  minutes  before  using, 
then  disinfected  by  the  use  of  the  carbolic  acid  or  creolin. 
The  receptacle  for  holding  the  cotton  is  filled  with  ordinary 
cotton,  or,  better  still,  absorbent  cotton,  which  may  be 
purchased  at  most  drug  stores.  The  milk  tube  is  inserted 
into  one  of  the  teat  openings  without  drawing  any  milk,  and 


FIG.  45.  —  Milk  Fever 
outfit.  The  milk  tube  is 
inserted  in  the  milk  duct 
of  the  teat  and  air  is 
pumped  through  steri- 
lized cotton  placed  in  the 
small  cylinder. 


COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE  155 

air  is  pumped  through  the  cotton  into  the  udder.  This  is 
con  inued  until  the  quarter  is  well  distended  with  air,  when 
the  tube  is  carefully  withdrawn  and  a  tape  tied  around  the 
teal  tight  enough  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  air.  The 
san  e  treatment  is  applied  to  each  quarter.  The  teats  are 
allo.ved  to  remain  tied.  Ordinarily  within  two  or  three 
hou  's  the  cow  will  regain  consciousness  and  be  able  to  stand 
on  ler  feet.  If  the  air  is  absorbed  or  escapes,  so  that  the 
uddor  is  not  tightly  distended,  the  tape  should  be  removed 
and  another  injection  of  air  made  as  before.  Usually  two  in- 
ject ons  are  sufficient.  The  udder  should  remain  full  of  air 
fifteen  hours  at  least,  and  longer  if  any  sign  of  the  trouble 
remains.  The  calf  of  course  is  not  allowed  to  suck  during 
this  time.  If  inflammation  of  the  udder  follows,  sufficient 
care  was  not  taken  in  disinfecting  the  apparatus. 

143.  Abortion.  This  term  is  used  by  cattlemen  to  indi- 
cate the  premature  birth  of  the  calf.  Abortion  may  be 
accidental  or  the  result  of  a  contagious  disease.  The  non- 
contagious  cases  may  occur  as  the  result  of  injury,  such  as 
a  fall,  the  kick  of  a  horse,  or  being  crowded  in  a  gate  or  door- 
way. Severe  sickness,  such  as  indigestion  or  bloat,  may 
cause  the  trouble.  If  a  single  case  occurs,  it  may  be  attrib- 
uted to  some  accidental  cause.  If  a  number  occur  in  the 
same  herd,  it  is  almost  certain  that  the  specific  disease  known 
as  contagious  abortion  is  present. 

This  disease  causes  more  loss  financially  to  the  dairymen  of 
the  country  than  any  other  disease  to  which  cattle  are  sub- 
ject. As  a  result  of  the  work  of  Dr.  Bang  of  Denmark  it  is 
now  definitely  known  that  this  trouble  is  due  to  a  certain 
species  of  bacteria.  The  presence  of  these  living  organisms 
in  many  cases,  but  not  in  all,  results  in  premature  birth  of 
the  calf.  It  is  thoroughly  proved  that  the  disease  is  con- 


156  DAIRY  FARMING 

tagious  and  may  spread  through  a  herd  from  a  single  in- 
fected animal  brought  into  the  herd.  From  50  to  75  per 
cent  of  the  cows  in  an  affected  herd  often  abort.  The 
remainder  are  either  naturally  immune  or  carry  the  calf  to 
full  time  in  spite  of  the  disease.  The  calf  is  usually  born  at 
the  sixth  or  seventh  month  and,  at  this  early  stage,  always 
dead.  After  having  once  aborted  many  of  the  cows  are 
immune  and  afterwards  carry  the  calf  in  a  normal  manner. 
Others  abort  twice  before  becoming  immune.  Some  as  the 
result  of  abortion  become  sterile  or  shy  breeders.  The 
disease  is  spread  either  by  the  male  or  by  the  germs  from 
an  affected  animal  getting  on  the  feed  consumed  by  another. 

Two  methods  of  testing  cows  for  infection  with  this  dis- 
ease have  recently  been  devised.  These  methods  as  yet 
can  be  carried  out  only  by  a  skillful  operator  supplied  with 
the  facilities  of  a  scientific  laboratory.  It  is  probable  that 
these  methods  will  be  adapted  for  use  by  a  large  number  of 
veterinarians.  Such  a  test  may  make  it  possible  to  keep 
herds  free  from  abortion  by  excluding  animals  having  the 
disease. 

No  satisfactory  treatment  has  yet  been  discovered  for 
contagious  abortion.  The  main  precaution  now  is  preven- 
tion as  far  as  possible  by  keeping  the  disease  out  of  the  herd. 
It  is  not  safe  to  buy  an  aged  bull  or  a  cow  from  a  herd  where 
the  disease  exists.  If  an  abortion  occurs,  the  fetus  and  after- 
birth should  be  burned  or  buried.  The  aborting  cow  should 
be  isolated  and  the  stall  where  she  stood  disinfected  with  a 
5  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

144.  Tuberculosis.  This  disease  is  caused  by  a  certain 
species  of  bacteria.  The  bacteria  cannot  develop  from  the 
surroundings  or  conditions  of  handling,  but  must  come  from 
another  animal  having  the  disease.  The  germs  that  cause 


COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE  157 

the  disease  escape  from  an  infected  animal  in  the  slobber 
from  the  mouth,  with  the  manure,  and,  sometimes  in  the 
cast  of  udder  infection,  with  the  milk.  As  a  rule  a  cow  does 
not  die  quickly  from  tuberculosis.  The  disease  usually  pro- 
gresses slowly.  The  animal  may  have  it  for  years  without 
any  indication  of  ill  health.  The  disease  may  attack  almost 
any  organ  of  the  animal's  body  but  is  common,  as  with 
hun  i  an  beings,  in  the  lungs.  Animals  that  have  plenty  of 
feed  and  fresh  air  may  sometimes  recover.  Good  ventilation 
and  good  feed  and  care  are  important  in  control  of  the 
dise  tse. 

It  is  impossible  to  tell  by  external  appearances,  except  in 
extreme  cases,  whether  the  animal  is  affected  or  not.  For- 
tune tely  we  have  in  the  substance  known  as  tuberculin,  an 
agent  that  is  fairly  reliable  in  showing  the  presence  of  the 
disease  even  in  the  smallest  degree.  The  test  is  made  by 
first  taking  the  temperature  of  each  animal  three  or  four 
times  at  intervals  of  two  hours.  Tuberculin  is  then  injected 
beneath  the  skin.  After  eight  or  nine  hours  temperature 
readings  are  again  taken  and  repeated  five  to  eight  times 
at  two-hour  intervals.  A  rise  in  temperature  suggests  that 
the  disease  may  be  present,  but  experience  is  necessary  for 
accurate  interpretation  of  the  results..  The  interdermal 
method,  which  is  also  used,  consists  in  injecting  the  tuber- 
culin in  soft  skin,  usually  on  the  under  side  of  the  tail.  If 
the  disease  is  present,  a  swelling  appears  and  remains  for 
several  days! 

A  dairyman  accustomed  to  the  use  of  instruments  can 
conduct  the  test  himself  after  first  assisting  a  competent 
operator.  It  is  safer,  however,  to  have  the  work  done  by  a 
trained  veterinarian  in  order  that  no  mistakes  may  be  made 
and  that  the  test  may  be  recognized  by  health  officers  and 


158  DAIRY  FARMING 

prospective  buyers.  Many  states  have  laws  governing  the 
use  of  tuberculin.  These  laws  are  often  changed,  and  are 
sometimes  far  from  satisfactory.  For  these  reasons  one 
should  understand  the  law  before  he  tests  his  herd. 

The  tubercular  organism  in  cattle  is  slightly  different  from 
the  human  form,  but  sometimes  the  bovine  form  is  found  in 
human  beings.  It  is  thought  that  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs 
is  rarely  if  ever  contracted  from  cattle,  but  some  of  the 
cases  of  tuberculosis  in  the  intestines  and  glands,  especially 
in  young  children,  are  thought  to  be  so  contracted. 

145.  Inflammation  of  the  Udder.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
common  troubles  with  dairy  cows.  It  varies  in  severity  from 
a  mild  case,  when  the  milk  is  only  slightly  stringy  for  a  few 
days,  to  severe  cases,  where  the  udder  becomes  so  swollen 
that  no  milk  can  be  drawn.  It  may  end  with  the  permanent 
loss  of  the  udder. 

Inflammation  of  the  udder  is  not  the  same  as  the  conges- 
tion that  occurs  in  heavy-milking  cows  just  after  calving. 
Congestion  at  this  time  is  to  be  expected  and  need  not  cause 
anxiety,  as  long  as  the  milk  can  be  drawn  from  each  quarter 
and  the  milk  appears  normal.  When  the  udder  is  inflamed, 
the  cow  should  not  receive  much  grain  until  the  udder  softens. 
The  ration  fed  should  be  laxative  in  nature  and  of  a  light 
character,  such  as  bran.  The  milk  should  be  drawn  several 
times  daily  and  the  cow  carefully  protected  from  cold  and 
exposure. 

Garget  is  a  common  name  for  mild  cases  of  inflammation 
of  the  udder.  Sometimes  there  are  swellings  in  the  udder, 
or  the  milk  may  be  stringy  or  lumpy.  In  many  cases  no 
special  cause  can  be  discovered,  although  exposure  to  severe 
weather,  lying  with  the  udder  on  a  cold  floor,  injury  by 
bruises,  or  too  heavy  grain  feeding  may  bring  it  about. 


COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE  159 

Certain  cows  at  times  have  it  as  a  chronic  condition,  giving 
stringy  milk  at  intervals  for  months  or  years.  Mild  cases, 
if  not  chronic,  usually  respond .  readily  to  treatment.  A 
physic  should  be  given  at  once  and  the  grain  ration  reduced 
to  one-third  the  usual  amount.  An  ounce  of  saltpeter  per 
day  for  two  or  three  days  is  generally  beneficial  after  the 
purgative  has  begun  to  work.  If  the  udder  is  very  sensi- 
tive ,  a  milking  tube  should  be  used  for  a  few  days. 

( 'ccasionally  severe  cases  of  inflammation  of  the  udder 
develop.  These  usually  come  on  suddenly  and  are  most 
likely  to  affect  the  heaviest  milkers.  One  or  more  of  the 
quarters  of  the  udder  swell  and  become  very  hard,  while 
the  whole  gland  is  decidedly  hot  and  tender  and  no  milk 
can  be  drawn.  Usually  a  small  amount  of  yellowish  watery 
fluid  replaces  the  milk.  If  the  inflammation  cannot  be  re- 
ducod  within  a  short  time,  that  part  of  the  udder  affected 
will  not  secrete  any  milk  during  that  lactation  period  and 
will  probably  be  permanently  lost.  In  some  cases  a  fibrous 
mass  develops  in  the  udder  following  such  an  attack,  in  others 
an  ubscess  may  result. 

Treatment  must  be  prompt  and  thorough.  The  cow  suf- 
fers greatly  from  the  weight  of  the  udder.  This  should  be 
remedied  as  much  as  possible  by  passing  a  sheet  around 
the  body  to  support  the  udder.  Hot  water  applied  for  an 
hour  or  more  by  packing  soft  rags  around  the  udder,  followed 
by  rubbing  and  kneading  is  often  found  beneficial.  After 
this  is  done,  the  best  treatment  is  probably  an  application  of 
antiphlogistine.  This  is  warmed  and  applied  in  a  layer  about 
one-fourth  inch  thick  leaving  the  teats  protruding  so  that 
the  milk  may  be  drawn.  In  about  twenty-four  hours  the 
antiphlogistine  loosens  and  may  be  removed.  A  second 
application  is  sometimes  advisable.  If  it  is  impossible  to 


160  DAIRY  FARMING 

apply  antiphlogistine,  the  udder  may  be  packed  in  ice,  which 
is  replenished  as  fast  as  it  melts  and  allowed  to  remain 
several  hours. 

In  the  beginning  of  any  treatment  of  this  trouble  a  drench 
should  be  given  containing  from  1  to  1|  pounds  of  Epsom 
salts.  One  ounce  of  saltpeter  is  also  given  in  many  cases  to 
stimulate  the  action  of  the  kidneys  and  may  be  continued 
two  or  three  days. 

146.  Scours  in  Calves.  The  most  common  trouble  ex- 
perienced in  calf  raising  is  indigestion,  which  shows  its  pres- 
ence by  scours.  Care  should  be  taken  to  distinguish  between 
common  scours  resulting  from  indigestion,  and  navel  in- 
fection, one  symptom  of  which  is  scours. 

Navel  infection  is  sometimes  called  either  white  scours 
or  calf  cholera.  It  is  a  contagious  germ  disease  which  gains 
access  to  the  calf's  body  through  the  navel  cord  soon  after 
birth.  It  appears  within  one  or  two  days  after  birth.  The 
calf  is  very  sick  from  the  first  and  nearly  always  dies.  The 
eyes  are  sunken,  and  a  common  symptom,  although  it  is 
not  always  observed,  is  the  passage  of  white,  foul-smelling 
dung.  If  one  case  occurs,  others  are  likely  to  appear,  es- 
pecially if  other  calves  are  born  in  the  same  stall.  Often  sev- 
eral cases  occur  in  succession  in  the  same  barn.  The  trouble 
may  be  avoided  by  making  sure  that  the  calf  is  dropped  in 
a  clean  stall  and  that  the  navel  cord  is  not  allowed  to  come 
in  contact  with  any  manure  or  dirt  until  the  cord  is  dry. 
If  the  calf  is  dropped  in  the  pasture,  there  is  little  danger 
unless  it  is  brought  at  once  to  the  barn.  If  it  is  born  in  a 
barn  where  previous  cases  have  occurred,  the  only  safe  plan 
is  to  tie  up  the  cord  at  birth  in  a  clean  bandage,  having  ap- 
plied a  mild  disinfectant,  such  as  weak  creolin  or  tincture  of 
iodine. 


COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE  161 

Calves  raised  by  hand  should  be  watched  closely  for  signs 
of  iiidigestion.  The  main  treatment,  as  pointed  out  in  the 
disc  ussion  of  calf  feeding,  lies  in  prevention.  Often  the  first 
indication  of  disorder  is  foul-smelling  dung.  If  this  is 
noticed,  the  ration  should  be  at  once  cut  down  to  one-half  or 
one  third  the  usual  amount.  Often  light  feeding  for  a  few 
tim<!S  will  remove  the  trouble  with  no  further  treatment. 
It  is  well  to  add  to  each  pint  of  milk  one  teaspoonful  of  a 
mixture  of  one-half  ounce  of  formalin  in  15J  ounces  of  water. 
The  formalin  should  be  given  for  two  or  three  days  at  least. 
Afti-r  two  or  three  feedings,  if  the  calf  improves,  the  milk 
may  be  increased  to  the  usual  quantity. 

When  a  severe  case  of  scours  occurs,  the  feed  should  be  at 
onc<-  reduced.  A  drench  of  three  ounces  of  castor  oil  in  a 
pint  of  milk  may  be  given  with  advantage.  It  is  well  to 
•give  the  formalin  mixture  for  several  days  during  recovery 
from  a  severe  attack. 

147.  Lice.  During  the  winter  season  especially,  cattle 
are  often  affected  with  lice.  Calves  and  young  cattle  are 
most  often  affected,  but  older  cattle  are  not  exempt,  and  they 
may  suffer  badly  from  this  pest.  The  presence  of  lice  may 
be  suspected  if  the  cows  are  seen  rubbing  the  neck  and  shoul- 
ders on  trees  and  posts.  When  they  are  badly  infested, 
their  hair  usually  begins  to  come  out,  in  spots.  Several 
substances  may  be  used  to  kill  the  lice.  Any  of  the  coal  tar 
dips  and  compounds  on  the  market  may  be  employed  with 
success.  The  most  satisfactory  treatment  is  kerosene  emul- 
sion. To  make  this,  dissolve  one-half  pound  of  hard  soap 
in  one  gallon  of  boiling  soft  water.  As  soon  as  the  soap  is 
dissolved,  add  two  gallons  of  kerosene.  Mix  by  pumping 
with  a  spray  pump  or  by  stirring  or  by  other  means  until  a 
thick  creamy  emulsion  is  formed  from  which  the  oil  does 


162  DAIRY  FARMING 

not  readily  separate.  Before  using,  add  this  mixture  to 
19  gallons  of  water.  The  emulsion  may  be  applied  with  a 
spray  pump,  or  with  a  brush,  wetting  the  entire  animal 
thoroughly.  The  above  amount  is  enough  for  twenty  cows. 

148.  Bloat.     This  trouble  comes  from  the  formation  of 
an  excessive  amount  of  gas  in  the  paunch.     It  often  results 
from  pasturing  on  alfalfa  or  clover,  but  may  occur  with  any 
kind  of  feed.     It  is  known  by  the  excessive  swelling  of  the 
left  flank.     If  relief  is  not  obtained  in  time,  the  animal 
may  die  from  suffocation  due  to  the  great  pressure  on  the 
lungs.     In  mild  cases  driving  the  animal  at  a  rapid  rate 
for  some  distance  may  be  sufficient.     Cold  water  thrown  in 
quantities  upon  the  cow's  sides  may  reduce  the  pressure. 

The  Kentucky  Experiment  Station  recommends  for  acute 
bloating  that  a  quart  of  1J  per  cent  solution  of  formalin  be 
given  as  a  drench  followed  by  placing  a  wooden  block  in  the 
animal's  mouth  for  a  short  time.1 

In  case  relief  cannot  be  obtained  otherwise,  the  gas  must 
be  removed  without  delay.  This  is  best  done  by  the  use 
of  a  trocar.  In  using  this  instrument  a  spot  is  selected  on 
the  left  side  equally  distant  from  the  last  rib,  the  hip  bone, 
and  the  backbone.  The  skin  is  cut  for  about  an  inch,  then 
the  trocar  is  thrust  into  the  paunch.  The  sheath  of  the  tro- 
car is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  opening  as  long  as  any  gas 
escapes,  which  may  be  several  hours.  It  is  generally  advis- 
able to  give  a  dose  of  1  to  1J  pounds  of  salts  after  a  case  of 
bloating. 

149.  Cowpox.     This  trouble  is  common  with  dairy  cattle. 
It  appears  as  pustules  especially  on  the  udder  and  surround- 
ing parts.     The  virus  used  in  the  vaccination  of  human 
beings  against  smallpox  is  obtained  from  cows  that  have  had 

1  Kentucky  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Circular  5. 


COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE  163 

the  disease.  The  first  indication  of  the  disease  is  the  ap- 
pearance of  small  pimples  on  the  skin.  These  at  first  con- 
tain a  watery  fluid  which  later -thickens  and  becomes  pus. 
Tho  pustule  becomes  flattened  at  the  center  and  about  the 
nin  th  day  breaks  and  the  pus  escapes.  After  it  has  broken, 
a  t  lick  dark  scale  appears,  usually  with  a  depression  in  the 
cei  ter.  This  comes  off  later,  leaving  a  small  pit  similar  to 
th(  scars  of  smallpox.  The  disease  is  conta- 
giois  to  other  cattle,  but  an  animal  once  af- 
flic  ed  with  the  disease  is  immune  for  some 
tin  e  at  least,  and  perhaps  for  life. 

No  special  treatment  is  necessary,  as  the 
animal  will  soon  recover.  About  all  that  can 
be  done  is  to  apply  some  disinfectant,  such  as 
zin<?  ointment,  or  a  weak  solution  of  some  one 
of  i  he  coal  tar  products  commonly  used  on  the 
farm  as  stock  dips.  The  affected  animal  should  FIG.  46.  - 
be  milked  last  so  that  the  milker  will  not  carry  a  iast  resort  in 
the  disease  to  other  cows.  After  milking,  the  relieving  bloat, 
hands  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected.  The 
milk  from  a  cow  suffering  from  this  disease  should  not  be 
used  for  human  food. 

150.  Blackleg.  This  disease  is  also  known  as  "  black 
quarter."  It  attacks  calves  and  young  cattle  from  the  age 
of  a  few  weeks  up  to  the  age  of  2  or  even  3  years.  It  is  dis- 
tributed more  or  less  over  a  large  part  of  this  country  but 
is  largely  localized.  Certain  neighborhoods  or  farms  after 
once  becoming  infected  often  remain  so  for  long  periods,  and 
any  young  stock  exposed  are  liable  to  develop  the  disease. 
It  is  caused  by  a  bacterium  that  gets  into  the  animal's  body 
from  the  food  or  water.  This  bacterium  can  survive  outside 
the  animal's  body  for  long  periods,  so  that  the  disease  may 


164  DAIRY  FARMING 

appear  even  though  no  cases  have  been  known  for  a  long 
time.  Calves  in  good  flesh  are  the  most  subject  to  its  at- 
tack. Calves  affected  with  the  disease  live  a  few  days  but 
seldom  recover. 

The  disease  is  easily  recognized.  The  calf  at  first  appears 
merely  lame  and  stiff.  Swellings  will  usually  be  formed  on 
some  part  of  the  body,  and  when  these  are  rubbed  a  peculiar 
crackling  sound  is  noticed  resulting  from  the  gas  that  has 
formed  in  the  tissue.  When  the  calf  is  examined  after 
death  the  affected  quarter  will  be  found  to  be  congested 
with  dark  blood  and  almost  black  in  color,  which  condition 
gives  rise  to  the  common  name  of  the  disease.  It  is  useless 
to  attempt  to  treat  the  animals  already  affected.  When 
a  case  occurs,  those  not  sick  should  be  vaccinated  at  once. 
There  is  then  little  danger  that  the  trouble  will  spread. 
In  localities  where  the  disease  is  common,  vaccination  should 
be  practiced  on  all  calves,  as  a  preventive,  without  waiting 
for  the  disease  to  appear.  The  vaccine  used  for  the  pur- 
pose may  be  purchased  arid  applied  by  the  owner  himself, 
or  a  veterinary  surgeon  may  be  employed  if  the  owner  pre- 
fers. 

151.  Sorghum  and  Kafir  Corn  Poisoning.  Sorghum  and 
kafir  corn  are  important  forage  crops  in  that  part  of  the 
country  bordering  on  the  semiarid.  Under  certain  conditions 
these  plants  develop  a  poison,  which  is  frequently  the  cause  of 
losses  of  stock,  especially  cattle.  The  danger  occurs  when  the 
growth  of  the  crop  is  checked  by  dry  weather  and  at  times  in 
second  growth  sorghum  or  kafir.  The  trouble  occurs  only 
when  the  animal  eats  the  green  plant.  The  damage  usually 
happens  when  the  stock  break  through  the  fences  and  eat  the 
green  crop  in  the  field,  although  occasionally  cattle  are  turned 
into  such  a  field  by  some  one  who  is  ignorant  of  the  possible 


COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE  165 

dai>ger.  Death  will  sometimes  occur  within  half  an  hour 
after  the  food  is  eaten.  As  small  a  quantity  as  two  pounds 
sometimes  causes  death. 

The  Nebraska  Experiment  Station 1  records  a  case  where 
21  cows  out  of  32  died  within  an  hour  after  being  turned 
into  a  field  of  stunted  kafir  corn.  When  these  crops  are 
pin  into  the  silo  or  made  into  hay  for  some  reason  the  dan- 
ger disappears.  Little  can  be  done  to  treat  an  animal  af- 
fec'ed.  In  fact,  as  a  rule  the  animal  is  dead  before  the 
owner  knows  it  is  sick.  Prevention,  by  excluding  stock  from 
such -fields  during  seasons  when  the  presence  of  the  poison 
is  suspected,  is  the  only  safe  course. 

152.  Corn-stalk  Disease.  In  the  states  of  the  Middle 
West,  where  corn  is  grown  in  large  quantities,  the  common 
practice  is  to  husk  the  corn  from  the  standing  stalks  and 
leave  the  stalks  in  the  field.  Later  the  cattle  are  turned 
into  the  field  to  gather  as  much  of  the  stalks  and  leaves  as 
they  will  utilize.  Stalk  fields  are  generally  pastured  during 
the  early  part  of  the  winter.  Frequent  losses  of  cattle  occur 
during  the  time  they  are  given  access  to  the  stalk  fields. 
The  ailment  is  known  as  the  corn-stalk  disease.  It  most 
commonly  occurs  during  periods  of  cold  or  wet  weather  and 
always  after  the  stalks  have  become  thoroughly  dry.  The 
trouble  usually  occurs  during  the  first  few  days  after  the 
cattle  are  put  into  the  stalk  field. 

The  disease  appears  suddenly.  The  animal  afflicted  is 
reluctant  to  move  and  when  forced  to  do  so  shows  an  un- 
steady gait.  Later  there  are  indications  of  severe  pain  such 
as  kicking  towards  the  body,  bellowing,  and  moaning.  The 
animal  may  froth  at  the  mouth  and  attempt  to  attack  any 
one  coming  near.  Death  usually  occurs  within  one  or  two 

1  Nebraska  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  77. 


166  DAIRY  FARMING 

days.  All  attempts  to  find  the  specific  cause  of  the  disease 
have  so  far  failed.  It  has  been  proved  that  smut  in  corn  is 
not  the  cause.  Those  who  have  given  the  subject  most 
attention  believe  the  trouble  is  the  result  of  acute  indiges- 
tion caused  by  eating  too  much  coarse  indigestible  food.  It 
is  possible  that  under  certain  conditions  some  poisonous 
substance  is  developed  in  the  stalks. 

No  satisfactory  medical  treatment  has  been  found.  As 
with  many  other  diseases,  attention  has  to  be  directed  to- 
wards prevention.  Cattle  should  always  be  watered  and  well 
fed  before  being  turned  into  a  stalk  field  for  the  first  time, 
and  some  laxative  food,  such  as  alfalfa  or  clover  hay,  should 
be  given  daily.  Plenty  of  water  should  be  readily  accessible. 
The  animals  should  be  turned  into  the  field  for  only  a  short 
time  the  first  day,  gradually  lengthening  the  time  each  day 
as  they  become  accustomed  to  the  feed.  Fortunately  this 
trouble  does  not  occur  from  feeding  corn  fodder  cut  and 
shocked  in  the  field,  or  from  corn  put  in  the  silo. 

QUESTIONS   AND    PROBLEMS 

1.  Let  each  student  make  a  list  of  as  many  cases  of  deaths  of 
cattle  in  the  community  as  he  can  find,  giving  the  cause  of  death 
and  telling  whether  a  calf,  cow,  steer,  or  bull.     Combine  these  re- 
ports to  find  the  comparative  number  of  deaths  from  each  disease. 

2.  What  is  the  cause  of  each  of  the  diseases  found  ?     How  may 
each  be  controlled  ? 

3.  Similarly  report  on  as  many  cases  as  possible  of  cows  that  were 
sold  or  slaughtered,  giving  the  reason  why  they  were  discarded. 

LABORATORY   EXERCISES 

13.  Miscellaneous  Exercises.  If  possible  make  arrangements  to 
do  the  following  work  with  a  cow  that  is  not  very  valuable.  A  clini- 
cal thermometer,  drenching  bottle,  carbolic  acid,  teat  plugs,  and 
milk  tube  will  be  required. 


COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE  167 

Each  student  should  learn  how  to  perform  the  following 
opei  ations : 

Take  the  temperature. 

Take  the  pulse. 

( 'ount  the  respiration. 

(  ive  the  cow  a  drench  of  pure  water  in  order  to  learn  the  method. 

]  repare  a  2  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

]  isert  a  teat  plug  after  sterilizing  it  with  the  carbolic  acid  solu- 
tion 

1  isert  a  milking  tube  after  sterilizing  it. 

14-.  Treatment  for  Lice.  Prepare  a  kerosene  emulsion  by  the 
direction  given  on  page  161.  If  possible  arrange  to  use  this  on  a 
here  that  needs  it. 


COLLATERAL    READING 

Milk  Fever,  Its  Simple  and  Successful  Treatment,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr. ,  Farmers'  Bulletin  206. 

Anthrax  with  Special  Reference  to  its  Suppression,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  439. 

Tuberculosis,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletins  351  and  473. 

Practical  Method  of  Disinfecting  Stables,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Farriers'  Bulletin  480. 

Texas  Fever,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletins  498,  569,  and 
603. 

Eradication  of  the  Cattle  Tick  Necessary  for  Profitable  Dairying 
in  the  South,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  639. 

Foot  and  Mouth  Disease,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  666. 

Diseases  of  Cattle,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  (A  550-page  book,  cost- 
ing $  1.) 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  L.  H.  Bailey,  Vol.  Ill, 
pp.  122-146,  321-330. 

The  Diseases  of  Animals,  N.  S.  Mayo. 


CHAPTER  8 
MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 

C.  H.  ECKLES 
COMPOSITION  OF  MILK 

153.  Average  Composition.     Milk  is  composed  of  water, 
fat,  protein,  sugar,  and  ash  or  minerals.     The  milk  of  all 
species  of  animals  and  of  every  individual  within  the  species 
contains  these  same  constituents,  but  the  proportions  ar% 
subject  to  wide  variations. 

Cow's  milk  weighs  approximately  2.15  pounds  per  quart. 
(Density  is  1.032.)  It  is  not  possible  to  give  any  single 
statement  that  will  give  more  than  a  general  idea  of  its 
composition  on  account  of  the  wide  variations  due  to  the 
influence  of  breed  and  other  factors.  If  a  quantity  of  milk 
be  taken  as  representative  of  the  total  amount  sold  for  city 
trade  or  of  that  sold  to  butter  or  cheese  factories,  it  would 
have  approximately  the  following  composition : 

PER  CENT 

Water 87.3 

Fat 3.7 

Protein 3.5 

Sugar 4.8 

Ash 7 

154.  Water.     Milk  contains  on  an  average  about  87.3 
per.  cent  of  water;     The  extreme  variations  are  from  about 
83  to  90  per  cent.     The  water  in  milk  serves  the  same 

168 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


169 


purpose  as  food  as  ordinary  water.  It  should  not  be 
con rhided  from  the  high  water  content  that  milk  has  a 
low  food  value. 

155.  Fat.  The  fat  is  commercially  the  most  valuable 
pan  of  milk.  It  is  also  the  most  variable  in  amount.  It 
ma>  range  from  2.5  to  7.5  per  cent  and  occasionally  even 
beyond  these  limits.  The  fat  exists  in  the  form  of  minute 


FIG.   47.  —  Photomicrograph  showing  fat   globules 
in  Shorthorn  milk.     Magnified  400  diameters. 

globules,  too  small  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye  but  readily 
seen  under  a  microscope.  It  is  in  a  state  of  suspension,  that 
is,  the  fat  globules  are  floating  in  the  milk.  When  milk 
stands  undisturbed  for  some  time,  the  fat  rises  to  the  top  in 
the  form  of  cream.  Churning  of  cream  is  the  uniting  of 
these,  fat  globules  by  mechanical  means  until  they  form  a 
lump  of  butter.  The  main  factors  influencing  the  amount 
of  fat  are  :  (1)  breed,  (2)  stage  of  lactation,  (3)  individuality 


170  DAIRY  FARMING 

of  the  cow,  (4)   interval  between  milkings,  (5)   portion   of 
the  milking,  fore  milk  or  strippings. 

As  food,  fat  serves  as  fuel  to  supply  heat  for  the  body,  and 
energy  to  keep  up  the  body  functions.  The  surplus  is  stored 
as  body  fat,  which  serves  as  a  storehouse  of  reserve  material 
for  future  use.  Fat  does  not  make  growth  of  bone  or  muscle. 

156.  Protein.     The  protein  varies  in  amount  from  2.5  to 
4.2  per  cent  in  extreme  cases.     Mixed  milk  usually  varies 
between   3   and   3.5   per   cent.     Protein   contains  nitrogen 
combined  with  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  small  quantities  of 
phosphorus  and  sulphur.     The  proteins  in  milk  are  a  mix- 
ture of  several  kinds.     Two  only  need  to  be  mentioned  since 
they  make  up  nearly  the  entire  amount.     These  are  casein 
and  albumin.     The  casein  is  that  part  of  milk  which  curdles 
on  souring.     It  also  gives  the  white  color  to  the  milk.     In 
cheese  making  rennet  is  added  to  the  milk  to  coagulate  the 
casein,  which  takes  most  of  the  fat  with  it  in  a  mechanical 
way.     The  albumin  is  present  to  the  amount  of  about  0.7 
per  cent.     It  is  much  like  the  albumin  of  an  egg  or  that  in 
blood.     It  is  coagulated  by  heating  and  may  be  seen  as  a 
scum  on  the  surface  of  boiled  milk.     It  goes  into  the  whey 
in  cheese  making. 

The  protein  may  be  said  to  be  the  most  valuable  food  con- 
stituent of  milk.  It  supplies  material  necessary  for  the  growth 
of  bone  and  muscle  and  to  keep  up  the  repair  of  the  body. 
Part  of  the  casein  is  in  a  semi-dissolved  condition.  A  portion 
of  the  undissolved  part,  and  insoluble  impurities  that  were 
in  the  milk,  make  up  the  well-known  separator  slime. 

157.  Sugar.     The  form  of  sugar  known  as  lactose  is  found 
only  in  milk.     Its  chemical  composition  is  practically  the  same 
as  that  of  cane  sugar,  although  it  is  less  sweet  in  taste.     It 
has  the  same  food  value  as  ordinary  sugar  and  like  it  fur- 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  171 

nisl.es  a  source  of  heat  and  energy  for  the  body.  When  acted 
upon  by  certain  bacteria,  a  portion  of  it  changes  into  lactic 
acic  and  makes  the  milk  sour.  The  lactic  acid  unites  with 
the  iime  in  the  casein.  This  results  in  precipitating  the  casein 
as  1  [ie  curd  of  sour  milk. 

When  milk  is  used  for  butter  making,  the  greater  part  of 
the  sugar  goes  with  the  skim-milk,  another  part  with  the 
but  ermilk,  and  only  a  very  minute  quantity  into  the  but- 
ter. In  cheese  making  a  very  small  amount  goes  into  the 
che<  se  and  the  remainder  into  the  whey. 

158.  Mineral  Matter  or  Ash.     This  is  the  portion  remain- 
ing if  milk  solids  are  burned.     It  varies  little  in  quantity 
or  composition.     It  seldom  falls  below  0.6  or  exceeds  0.85  per 
cent.     It   is   composed  largely  of  potassium,   calcium,   and 
phosphorus,  with  smaller  quantities   of   several   other   ele- 
meri  ts,  including  iron  and  sodium.     When  milk  is  used  as  food, 
the  ash  serves  to  furnish  material  for  the  bones  and  to  supply 
other  necessary  demands  for  mineral  matter  in  the  body. 

159.  Color  of   Milk.     The  white  color  is  due    to  some 
extent  to  the  fat,  but  mostly  to  the  casein.     The  yellowish 
color  observed  to  some  extent  in  milk  is  associated  with  the 
fat.     This  yellow  coloring  matter  is  carotin.     Its  source  is 
the  plants  used  by  the  cow  for  food.1      This   pigment   is 
found  along  with  the  green  pigment  in  growing  plants.     It 
passes  from  the  stomach  through  the  circulation  of  the  cow 
and  into  the  milk-fat  in  an  unchanged  condition.     When  the 
feed  is  low  in  coloring  matter,  as  for  example  dry  hay  and 
grain,  the  color  of  the  milk-fat  is  reduced,  and  the  butter 
may  appear  almost  white  as  it  often  does  in  winter.     The 
yellow  coloring  matter  has  no  food  value,  neither  does  it 
give  any  taste  to  the  milk  or  fat.     The  preference  for  yellow 

1  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,' Research  Bulletins  9,  10,  11, 12. 


172 


DAIRY  FARMING 


butter  and  for  cream  of  a  somewhat  yellow  color  is  based 
entirely  upon  looks. 

FACTORS  INFLUENCING  COMPOSITION 
160.    The  Kind  of  Animal.     As  already  stated,  the  milk 
of  all  species  contains  the  same  constituents  but  in  different 
proportions.     Table   19  gives  the  average   composition  of 
human  milk  and  of  that  from  several  domestic  animals. 

TABLE  19.  —  COMPOSITION  OF  MILK  OF  DIFFERENT  ANIMALS 


SPECIES 

DRY 
MATTER 

FAT 

PROTEIN 

SUGAR 

ASH 

Human  .... 
Cow  .  . 

11.2 

12  7 

3.1 

3  7 

2.0 

35 

6.3 

48 

0.2 
07 

Goat  

14.5 

4.8 

5.0 

4.0 

07 

Sheep  .... 
Mare 

16.3 
93 

6.1 
1  2 

5.1 
20 

4.2 

5  7 

0.9 
04 

Sow  

15.9 

4.5 

7.2 

3.1 

1.1 

Camel  .  .  .  . 
Reindeer  .  .  . 
Bitch  .... 
Cat  .  . 

11.8 

28.8 
23.0 

184 

2.5 
14.5 
9.3 
39 

3.6 
9.8 
9.7 
9  1 

5.0 
3.0 
3.1 
49 

0.7 
1.5 
0.9 
05 

The  composition  of  human  milk  is  of  great  importance 
in  connection  with  the  problem  of  infant  feeding.  Within 
recent  years  it  has  become  more  and  more  the  practice  to 
modify  cow's  milk  when  used  for  infant  food  so  that  it  ap- 
proaches the  normal  milk  of  the  human  mother.  The  most 
marked  difference  in  composition  between  human  and  cow's 
milk  is  the  decidedly  lower  protein  and  higher  sugar  content 
in  the  former. 

The  general  plan  followed  in  modifying  cow's  milk  for 
infant  feeding  is  to  add  sufficient  water  to  reduce  the  pro- 
tein content  to  that  found  in  human  milk.  Cream  is  then 
added  to  restore  the  fat  content  to  from  2.5  to  3.5  per 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


173 


ceni  and  sufficient  sugar,  usually  milk  sugar,  to  raise  the 
consent  of  this  constituent  to  that  found  in  human  milk. 

A  knowledge  of  the  composition  of  milk  produced  by 
the  common  domestic  animals  will  be  found  of  value  at 
tim<  s.  For  example,  if  it  becomes  necessary  to  raise  a  colt 
by  1  and,  a  study  of  the  table  giving  the  composition  of  mare's 
mill,  will  show  clearly  that  even  average  cow's  milk  should 
be  diluted  with  water  before  being  used  for  this  purpose. 
Cane  sugar  is  often  added. 

T!ie  exceedingly  rapid  growth  of  small  animals  is  ex- 
plained by  the  very  rich  milk  that  small  species  always 
produce.  As  a  general  rule  the  larger  the  species,  the  slower 
the  growth  of  the  young,  and  the  smaller  the  amount  of  solids 
in  tl  ie  milk.  Animals  living  in  arctic  regions  or  in  the  ocean 
are  exceptions.  These  conditions  require  a  large  amount  of 
fat  for  fuel  to  keep  the  young  animal  warm.  This  interesting 
fact  is  illustrated  by  the  composition  of  the  reindeer's  milk 
and  also  by  that  of  certain  marine  animals  such  as  the  walrus 
and  the  porpoise  which  secrete  the  richest  milk  known. 

161.  Breed.  The  milk  from  different  breeds  of  cows 
differs  in  composition.  Table  20  gives  a  summary  of  all 
the  published  records  of  American  Experiment  Stations  on 
this  subject  up  to  1913  : 

TABLE  20.  —  COMPOSITION  OF  MILK  BY  BREEDS  l 


BREED 

TOTAL  SOLIDS 

FAT 

PROTEIN 

SUGAR 

Jersey    .... 

14  70 

5  14 

3  80 

5  04 

Guernsey  .... 

14.49 

4.98 

3.84 

4.98 

Ayrshire     .... 

12.72 

3.85 

3.34 

5.02 

Holstein     .... 

12.00 

3.45 

3.15 

4.65 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  156. 


174  DAIRY  FARMING 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  main  variation  is  in  the  fat,  al- 
though the  protein  -shows  sufficient  variation  to  be  of  impor- 
tance. Sugar  varies  but  slightly,  and  the  ash  practically 
none.  The  breed  of  the  cow  also  has  a  marked  influence 
upon  the  size  of  the  fat  globules.  Those  of  the  Jerseys  and 
Guernseys  are  much  larger  than  those  of  the  Holsteins.  The 
larger  fat  globules  in  Jersey  milk  result  in  quicker  and  more 
complete  separation  of  the  cream  by  gravity ;  also  in  a  slight 
difference  in  the  ease  of  churning.  The  breed  of  the  cow 
likewise  has  a  marked  influence  upon  the  color  of  milk  and 
especially  upon  the  color  of  the  butter.  In  amount  of  color 
the  Guernsey  ranks  first,  followed  by  the  Jersey,  Short- 
horn, Ayrshire,  and  Holstein  in  the  order  named.  There 
is  no  basis  for  the  common  claim  that  certain  breeds  pro- 
duce milk  or  butter  of  a  better  flavor  than  others.  Out- 
side the  possible  variation  in  color,  the  most  expert  judge 
cannot  distinguish  the  product  of  one  breed  from  that  of 
another  when  other  conditions  are  the  same. 

162.  Stage  of  Lactation.  The  stage  of  lactation  stands 
second  only  to  the  breed  in  importance  as  a  factor  influencing 
the  composition  of  milk.  The  amount  of  the  different  con- 
stituents and  also  the  nature  of  the  fat  itself  is  influenced  in 
this  way.  The  most  marked  effect  is  upon  the  amount  of 
protein  and  fat. 

The  figures  in  Table  21  obtained  by  the  author  show  the 
average  for  eleven  cows  representing  three  breeds  which  were 
kept  on  a  uniform  ration  for  an  entire  lactation  period  to  elim- 
inate changes  due  to  feed.  A  decided  increase  in  the  amount 
of  fat  and  protein  is  shown,  but  little  change  in  the  sugar 
content. 

The  stage  of  lactation  also  has  a  marked  effect  upon 
the  size  of  fat  globules.  After  the  cow  has  been  in  milk 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


175 


ten  or  eleven  months,  the  fat  globules  average  about  one- 
th  rd  the  size  of  those  in  the  milk  when  the  cow  is  fresh. 
Tl  is  is  one  reason  why  difficulty  is  often  experienced  in  churn- 
ing the  cream  from  cows  that  have  been  in  milk  a  long  time. 

T,  BLE  21.  —  EFFECT   OF   STAGE  OF  LACTATION  ON  COMPOSITION 

OF  MILK 


FOUR   WEEKS 
PERIODS 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

SUGAR 

Weeks 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

PerCent 

1-4 

3.25 

4.00 

4.87 

5-8 

3.06 

3.85 

4.84 

9-12 

3.06 

3.79 

4.94 

13-16 

3.13 

3.77 

4.82 

17-20 

3.25 

3.82 

4.80 

21-24 

3.25 

3.79 

4.75 

25-28 

3.32 

3.83 

4.88 

29-32 

3.32 

3.85 

4.83 

33-36 

3.57 

3.97 

4.62 

37-40 

3.83 

4.11 

4.55 

41-44 

3.89 

4.22 

4.74 

45-48 

4.08 

4.54 

4.91 

49-52 

4.34 

4.66 

4.50 

163.  Individuality  of  the  Animal.     The  writer  has  kept 
complete  records  for  one  year  or  more  for  76  Jersey  cows. 
The  lowest  average  fat  content  for  a  year  was  4.47  and  the 
highest  7.00  per  cent.     Among  40  Holsteins  the  lowest  was 
2.6  and  the  highest  3.81.     The  records  of  25  Shorthorns 
show  a  variation  from  3.59  to  4.31  in  the  averages  for  one 
year.     These  give  an  idea  of  the  extent  of  variation  within 
a  breed.     The  variation  in  the  other  constituents  is  always 
less  than  the  variation  in  fat. 

164.  Interval  between  Milkings.     If  a  cow  is  milked  twice 
daily  at  equal  intervals,  the  quantity  and  quality  of  milk 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  155. 


176  DAIRY  FARMING 

are  usually  about  the  same  at  each  milking.  If  the  intervals 
are  not  equal,  the  larger  yield  of  milk  and  a  lower  percentage 
of  fat  follow  the  longer  interval.  When  the  milking  is  done 
three  times  or  more  daily,  the  variation  in  fat  content  is 
generally  considerable,  even  though  the  intervals  between 
milking  are  equal.  As  a  rule,  the  milk  drawn  near  the  noon 
hour  has  the  highest  fat  content.  Where  the  composition 
is  varied  by  unequal  intervals,  the  variation  is  confined 
mostly  to  the  fat. 

165.  Fore  Milk  and  Strippings.     The  first  milk  drawn  from 
the  cow  contains  a  low  percentage  of  fat,  while  the  last  is  sev- 
eral times  richer  in  this  constituent.     The  first  milk  as  a  rule 
contains  from  1.5  to  2.5  per  cent,  while  the  strippings  range 
from  5  to  10  per  cent.     The  other  constituents  of  the  milk 
are  practically  the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  milking.    Numer- 
ous variations  occur  from  day  to   day  that  cannot  be  ex- 
plained by  any  of  the 'factors  described.     A  single  sample  of 
milk  from  a  cow  may  be  entirely  misleading. 

166.  Effect  of  Feed.     The  error  is  often  made  of  assuming 
that  the  richness  of  milk  varies  with  the  feed.     While  it 
is  possible  under  certain  conditions  to  make  a  variation  of 
possibly  0.2  to  0.4  per  cent  by  giving  certain  feeds,  it  is 
only  under  conditions  so  abnormal  that  it  is  of  scientific 
interest  only  and  has  no  practical  bearing.     As  far  as  the 
ordinary  practice  is   concerned,  the  feed  has  no  influence 
upon  the  richness  of  the  milk.     If  a  certain  cow  averages 
3.4  per  cent  fat  for  a  year,  no  one  knows  how  to  feed  her  to 
make  her  milk  average  4.0  per  cent  for  the  following  year. 
The  richness  of  a  cow's  milk  is  fixed  by  heredity  and  cannot  be 
permanently  changed  by  any  means.     It  is  a  well-known  fact, 
however,  that  a  cow  in  a  high  state  of  flesh  at  time  of  calving 
gives  richer  milk  for  a  short  time  than  does  one  thin  in  flesh. 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


177 


MARKET  MILK 

167.  Sanitary  Milk.  Milk  sometimes  acts  as  the  carrier 
of  human  disease  germs.  The  danger  that  such  germs  will 
get  into  milk  during  handling  is  much  greater  than  is  the 
d;  nger  of  the  transmission  of  any  disease  directly  from  the 
cows.  While  the  danger  of  carrying  disease  is  great,  it  is 


FIG.  48.  —  A  small  top  milk  pail  helps  to  prevent  contamination  during 
milking.  Strainers  and  cloth  over  the  opening  are  of  little  value.  Some 
of  the  most  sanitary  dairies  use  the  types  illustrated. 

certain  that  dirty  or  partly  spoiled  milk  is  even  more  serious 
and  is  responsible  for  much  sickness  and  many  deaths  among 
children. 

The  production  of  market  milk  that  is  reasonably  safe 
for  food,  is  not  difficult  and  need  not  involve  heavy  ex- 
pense, except  that  more  intelligence  is  necessary  for  its 
production  and  greater  intelligence  demands  higher  wages. 
It  is  certain  that  if  the  public  wants  good  clean  milk  the 


178  DAIRY  FARMING 

price  must  be  somewhat  higher  than  it  has  been  in  the  past. 
The  first  requirement  is  that  the  cows  must  be  healthy. 
The  milk  from  a  cow  suffering  from  sickness  of  any  kind, 
including  garget  in  the  udder,  should  not  be  used.  The 
milkers  should  be  in  good  health  and  should  take  special 
pains  that  no  possible  chance  is  given  for  the  germs  of 
typhoid  fever  to  get  into  the  milk.  Care  should  be  taken 
that  contaminated  water  is  not  used  for  washing  the 
utensils. 

Sanitary  milk  means  primarily  clean  milk.  In  fact,  the 
requirements  for  producing  sanitary  milk  can  be  described 
in  two  words.  The  first  is  cleanliness,  and  the  second 

is  coldness.     The  source 

U\  /     of  most  of  the  dirt  that 

\  /      finds  its  way  into  milk  is 

\  /       filth  from  the  cow's  body. 

V~     Q    ~V        A   dirty    cow   invariably 

m6anS  milk'      The 


F.G.  49.  -  Milk  pails  and  cans  should 
have  all  seams  filled  with  solder  as  in  b.      stable  should   be   SO    COn- 
Utensils  with  seams  like  a  are  very  diffi-  i  xt   A  ix  «  -i  i 

cult  to  keep  clean.  structed  that  it  is  possible 

to  keep  the  cow  clean.    A 

cow  should  be  brushed  daily  to  keep  the  loose  dirt  off  the 
body.  The  stable  and  yard  should,  of  course,  be  kept  in 
a  good  condition  of  cleanliness.  The  milker  should  wear 
clean  clothes  and  should  milk  with  dry  hands. 

Next  to  cleanliness  of  the  cow  stands  cleanliness  of  the 
pails,  strainers,  and  other  utensils.  These  should  be  first 
cleaned  with  a  brush,  using  warm  water  and  some  washing 
powder.  Special  attention  should  be  given  to  the  seams. 
After  being  thoroughly  cleaned,  they  should  be  scalded  with 
boiling  water  or  better  heated  in  steam  when  this  is  avail- 
able. After  being  scalded,  they  should  be  placed  where 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


179 


they  will  dry  quickly.     It  is  well  to  set  them  in  the  sun  dur- 
ing the  day. 

Coldness  is  as  important  as  cleanliness.     Keeping  milk 
cl  jan  keeps  most  of  the  bacteria  out.     Cooling  it  prevents 
tl  e  growth  of  those  that 
d'  get  in.    Effective  cool- 
ing means  bringing  the 
tr  nperature  of  the  milk, 
n<  t  later  than  an  hour 
af  :er  milking,  and  prefer- 

FIG.  50.  —  Brush  for  cleaning  milk  utensils. 

al  ly  sooner,  to  a  temper-       The  brush  &  much  better  than  a  cloth. 
at  ure  of  50°  F.,  or  lower. 

In  an  experiment  by  the  author  a  sample  of  fresh  milk 
w  is  divided  into  two  parts,  one  of  which  was  cooled  at  once 
to  50°  F.,  while  the  other  was  placed  at  75°  F.,  with  the  fol- 
io ving  results : 


HELD  AT  50°  F. 

HELD  AT  75°  F. 

Bacteria  per  c.c.  in  fresh  milk  .     . 
Bacteria  per  c.c.  after  12  hours 
Bacteria  per  c.c.  after  24  hours 
Age  of  milk  at  first  souring  .     .     . 

21,000 
20,000 
32,000 
3  days 

21,000 

110,000 
10,450,000 
28  hours 

Putting  warm  milk  in  an  ordinary  ice  box  is  not  an  effec- 
tive method  of  cooling,  as  can  be  readily  determined  by 
testing  it  with  a  thermometer.  The  importance  of  the 
statement  regarding  the  necessity  for  sudden  cooling  and 
the  inefficiency  of  cold  air  as  a  means  of  cooling  is  illus- 
trated in  a  striking  way  by  an  experiment  conducted  by 
students  under  the  supervision  of  the  author.  Sixteen  gal- 
lons of  fresh  warm  milk  was  received  from  the  barn,  mixed, 
and  then  placed  in  two  cans.  Plate  cultures  were  made 


180 


DAIRY  FARMING 


from  the  milk,  according  to  the 
logical  laboratories,  to  determine 


FIG.  51.  —  Influence  of  temperature 
on  the  growth  of  bacteria,  a  repre- 
sents one  original  bacterium ;  6,  the  de- 
scendants of  one  bacterium  in  milk  kept 
24  hours  at  50°  F.  ;  c  represents  the 
number  of  descendants  when  milk  is  not 
cooled. 


cooled  with  ice  to  a  temperature 
temperature  for  a  good  ice  box 
lated  below : 


method  used  in  bacterio- 
the  number  of  bacteria 
present.  There  were 
found  to  be  13,000  bac- 
teria per  cubic  centimeter 
in  the  fresh  milk.  This 
is  a  low  count,  showing 
that  the  milk  had  been 
taken  under  excellent 
sanitary  conditions.  One 
can  was  cooled  at  once 
to  50°  by  placing  it  in  ice 
water  and  stirring.  The 
other  can  still  showed  a 
temperature  of  90°.  Both 
were  now  put  in  a  room 
of  50°,  which  is  a  typical 
The  results  are  tabu- 


COOLED  MILK 

UNCOOLED 
MILK 

Number  of  bacteria  at  beginning     .     . 

13,000 

13,000 

Temperature  of  room    .     .     . 

50° 

50° 

Temperature  of  milk  at  beginning  . 

50° 

90° 

Temperature  after  12  hours   .... 

50° 

70° 

Temperature  after  24  hours   .... 

50° 

58° 

Temperature  after  36  hours   .... 

50° 

51° 

Number  of  bacteria  after.  36  hours 

15,000 

52,500,000 

The  bacteria  counts  were  made  in  both  samples  at  the 
end  of  36  hours.  The  cooled  sample  contained  15,000  bac- 
teria per  cubic  centimeter,  and  the  uncooled  the  enormous 
number  of  52,500,000  in  the  same  quantity.  The  sample 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  181 

co  )led  slowly  soured  within  40  hours,  while  the  other  re- 
mained perfectly  sweet  for  five  days. 

[f  a  large  quantity  of  milk  is  handled,  it  should  be  cooled 
b\  means  of  a  water  cooler,  many  styles  of  which  may  be 
purchased  at  reasonable  prices.  The  next  best  plan  is  to  set 
th  i  cans  in  ice  water  and  stir  the  milk  frequently. 

The  general  subject  of  milk  sanitation  may  be  summarized 
in  the  following  statements  : 
.    Use  only  healthy  cows. 

:!  Milk  should  not  be  handled  by  any  one  suffering  from 
a  c  ontagious  disease  or  associated  with  a  person  so  affected. 

)J.   The  cow's  body  should  be  kept  free  from  manure. 

4.  The  milker  should  have  clean  clothes  and  should  milk 
with  dry  hands. 

£>.   The  utensils  must  be  properly  washed  and  sterilized. 

C.  The  milk  must  be  thoroughly  cooled  immediately  and 
kept  cold  until  consumed. 

168.  Certified  Milk.  This  name  is  applied  to  milk  pro- 
duced according  to  a  set  of  rules  prepared  by  a  medical  milk 
commission.  Such  organizations  have  no  relation  to  either 
state  or  city  inspection.  Representatives  of  the  association 
make  chemical  analyses  and  bacteria  counts  of  the  milk  at 
frequent  intervals.  They  also  examine  the  sanitary  condi- 
tions of  the  premises  where  the  milk  is  produced  and  the 
health  of  the  cattle  and  of  the  milkers  at  regular  intervals. 

If  all  rules  are  complied  with  and  the  number  of  bacteria 
is  below  the  maximum  number  fixed  by  the  rules,  the  com- 
mission certifies  to  the  condition  of  the  milk  and  allows  the 
dairyman  to  sell  it  with  its  approval.  The  rules  are  very 
strict,  requiring  great  cleanliness  in  every  detail.  As  a 
result  certified  milk  means  the  highest  possible  quality  from 
a  sanitary  standpoint.  Such  milk  usually  retails  at  about 


182 


DAIRY  FARMING 


15  cents  per  quart,  and  the  producer  receives  possibly  8  cents 
at  the  farm.  At  present  only  a  very  small  amount  of  milk 
is  produced  under  these  conditions,  as  the  market  is  limited. 


FIG.  52.  —  Practical  milk  coolers  for  farm  use.  The  one  on  the  left  is 
more  efficient,  but  more  expensive.  Cold  water,  preferably  ice  water,  is 
used  for  cooling. 

It  is  only  practicable  to  conduct  such  a  business  where  a  large 
city  market  is  easy  of  access  and  when  suitable  arrangements 
can  be  made  to  market  the  product. 

BUTTER  MAKING  ON  THE  FARM 

169.  Butter  Making  on  the  Farm.  Although  the  creamery 
has  become  a  factor  of  great  importance  in  the  dairy  develop- 
ment of  the  country,  still  according  to  the  last  census,  994 
million  pounds  of  butter  per  year,  or  61  per  cent  of  the  total, 
was  made  on  farms.  The  greater  part  of  this  was  produced 
on  farms  where  fewer  than  ten  cows  were  kept.  The  quality 
of  farm-made  butter  varies  from  the  poorest  to  the  best. 
The  average  quality,  however,  is  far  below  that  made  in  the 
creameries.  This  is  duo  largely  to  the  fact  that  little  at- 
tention is  given  to  having  proper  utensils  and  facilities,  on 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


183 


account  of  the  small  amount  of  cream  available  on  most 
farms.  Lack  of  interest  and  of  knowledge  as  to  the  proper 
me : hods  also  affects  the  quality  of  the  product.  When  proper, 
facilities  are  provided  and  the  right  methods  are  followed, 
th(  quality  of  butter  made  on  the  farm  may  easily  be  su- 
pei  ior  to  that  made  in  the  average  creamery.  To  do  this  it 
is  i  ecessary  to  have  suffi- 
cient cream  to  make  it 
po^  sible  to  churn  at  least 
twice  and  preferably 
th]  ee  times  each  week. 

170.  Facilities  Needed. 
It  is  very  desirable,  but 
of  course  not  absolutely 
necessary,  to  have  a  sep- 
arate room  arranged  for 
but  ter    making.      Some- 
times  a  basement  room,  if 

it  is  well  ventilated  and  lighted,  can  be  utilized  with  advan- 
tage. A  concrete  floor  provided  with  a  drain  saves  a  great 
deal  of  labor  in  cleaning  apparatus.  Some  means  of  cooling, 
either  ice  or  an  abundance  of  very  cold  water,  is  indispensable. 

171.  What  is  Good  Butter.     Butter  that  has  the  qualities 
which  make  it  satisfactory  to  the  consumer  always  sells 
readily.     While  there  is  some  variation  in  individual  taste, 
the  general  market  demands  the  same  quality  everywhere. 
The  following  is  the  common  score  card  for  judging  butter. 


FIG.  53.  —  A  good  milk  house,  an  important 
part  of  the  equipment  on  a  dairy  farm. 


Flavor 
Body    . 
Color    . 
Salt 
Package 


45 

25 

15 

10 

5 

100 


184  DAIRY  FARMING 

172.  Flavor.     The  proper  flavor  is  hard  to  describe,  but 
may  be  said  to  be  a  pure  butter  taste  and  odor.     It  should 
be  entirely  free  from  any  other  taste,  such  as  might  be  de- 
scribed as  rancid,  stale,  or  strong.     The  flavor  of  the  butter, 
whether  it  be  good  or  bad,  in  at  least  nine  cases  out  of  ten, 
is  produced  during  the  souring,  or  ripening,  of  the  cream. 
There  are  a  few  exceptions  to  this  rule.     A  few  feeds,  such 
as  onions,  turnips,  or  new  rye  pasture,  will  give  a  taste  to 
butter.     In  a  few  cases,  butter  made  from  the  milk  of  a  cow 
near  the  end  of  her  milking  period,  has  a  slightly  objection- 
able taste. 

173.  Body,  Color,  and  Salt.     Body,  color,  salt,  and  pack- 
age may  be  said  to  depend  upon  mechanical  conditions. 
They  are  entirely  under  the  control  of  the  butter  maker,  pro- 
vided suitable  facilities  are  at  hand.     Faults  in  these  quali- 
ties are  not  to  be  attributed  to  the  feed,  breed,  or  season  of 
the  year. 

The  body  should  be.  waxy  and  firm,  but  not  brittle  or 
salvy.  It  should  not  stick  to  the  knife  when  cut,  neither 
should  it  crumble.  Proper  body  results  from  having  the 
churning  temperature  right,  stopping  the  churning  at  the 
right  stage,  and  working  the  butter  the  proper  amount. 

The  color  should  be  that  of  butter  produced  by  cows  on 
pasture.  During  the  season  when  dry  feed  is  used,  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  vegetable  coloring  should  be  added  to  the 
cream  to  give  the  proper  shade  of  yellow.  The  most  com- 
mon defects  in  color  are  having  it  too  high  or  too  low,  or 
having  a  streaky  or  uneven  color  known  as  mottles.  The 
latter  condition  is  due  to  uneven  distribution  of  the  salt,  a 
result  of  insufficient  working. 

The  salt  should  be  sufficient  so  that  a  person  eating  the 
butter  does  not  notice  either  a  deficiency  or  an  excess.  In 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


185 


ad(  iition  to  too  heavy  or  too  light  salting,  the  most  common 
fault  is  gritty  or  undissolved  salt. 

Vhe  amount  of  water  left  in  butter  is  somewhat  variable. 
Tho  usual  rule  is  to  estimate  that  a  given  number  of  pounds 
of  butter-fat  will  give  one-sixth  more  pounds  of  butter. 

174.    Separation  of  Cream.     In  certain  localities  it  is  the 
practice  to  churn  the  whole  milk,  but  this  results  in  an 
unnecessary  loss   of  butter-fat  in  the  buttermilk.      Until 
re<  ent   years  cream   has 
be<  n  secured  entirely  by 
all-  >wing  it  to  rise  to  the 
toj    of  the  milk.      Since 
th(    introduction  of   the 
cream    separator,   about 
1885,    the    separator 
method  has  become  more 
and  more  general. 

The  most  efficient 
gravity  method  consists 
in  using  a  narrow  deep 
can  set  in  ice  water  or 
very  cold  spring  or  well 
water,  and  skimming  the 
cream  at  the  end  of  12  or 
15  hours.  A  widely  used 
but  very  inefficient  way 
of  securing  cream  is  the 
shallow-pan  system, 

which  consists  in  placing  the  milk  in  pans  and  crocks  not 
over  four  inches  deep  and  keeping  it  at  a  moderate  temper- 
ature. The  cream  is  then  skimmed  from  the  surface  at 
the  end  of  24  or  36  hours.  By  use  of  the  deep-setting 


FIG.  54.  —  For  butter  making  purposes 
four  cows  with  a  cream  separator  are  equal 
to  five  when  shallow  pans  are  used  to  raise 
the  cream. 


186  DAIRY  FARMING 

method  it  is  possible  to  recover  about  90  per  cent  of  the 
cream.  By  the  shallow-pan  method  from  75  to  80  per 
cent  is  recovered. 

The  centrifugal  cream  separator  is  now  practical  where 
five  or  more  cows  are  kept  although  it  is  often  used  for  even 
a  smaller  number.  The  separator  makes  it  possible  to  re- 
cover about  98  per  cent  of  the  butter-fat  and  to  obtain  the 
cream  in  a  condition  that  makes  it  possible 
to  produce  the  highest  grade  of  butter.  It 
also  results  in  a  considerable  saving  of  labor, 
and  the  skim-milk  is  in  the  best  possible  con- 
dition for  feeding  to  calves. 

175.  Ripening  of  Cream.  This  subject 
requires  considerable  attention  since  the  mar- 
ket value  of  the  butter  is  largely  controlled 
by  the  cream  ripening.  Cream  should  not 
used  for  raising  be  held  too  long.  When  churned,  it  should 
cream  by  deep-  nave  a  pure,  sharp,  sour  taste  with  no  ob- 

setting  system. 

jectionable  taste,  such  as  bitter,  rancid,  or 
stale.  Cream  ripening  is  due  to  the  development  of  bacteria. 
Butter  factories  use  a  starter  to  help  control  the  souring, 
but  this  is  not  generally  practical  for  the  small  farm,  unless 
considerable  cream  is  handled.  The  proper  ripening  of  the 
cream  is  controlled  by  two  things  :  first,  by  observing  proper 
cleanliness  in  every  detail  of  milking,  separating,  and  hand- 
ling the  cream ;  second,  by  proper  control  of  the  temperature 
of  the  cream  during  the  ripening  process. 

The  following  statement  is  based  upon  the  assumption  that 
churning  will  be  done  two  or  three  times  weekly  and  not 
daily.  The  best  procedure  under  these  conditions  is  to 
keep  the  cream  from  the  first  milking  at  a  temperature  of 
70°  but  not  colder.  This  can  be  done  by  setting  the  can  in 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  187 

well  water  or  standing  it  in  a  room  at  ordinary  temperature. 
The  cream  from  the  next  milking  is  added  to  this  without 
coo  ing.  If  by  the  time  the  cream  from  the  third  milking  is 
added,  the  cream  in  the  can  tastes  sour,  the  entire  lot  should 
be  placed  in  cold  water  or  a  cold  place  where  it  will  cool  to 
a  t«  mperature  of  between  50°  and  60°.  It  should  be  kept 
at  his  temperature  until  churned.  The  ^ 

fresii  cream  as  separated  is  added  to  the 
sou  •  until  within  about  twelve  hours  of 
chu  rning,  after  which  no  more  is  added  in 
ord'jr  that  the  cream  may  be  kept  cool 
unt  1  churning  time. 

176.  Temperature  for  Churning.  No 
defi  aite  temperature  can  be  given  covering 
all  conditions.  The  best  rule  is  to  use 
sucli  temperature  as  is  necessary  to  get 
the  cream  to  churn  within  30  to  45  min- 
uter .  Quicker  churning  means  soft  butter 

,       .  ,         ,  ...  FIG.  56.  —  Floating 

Or     tOO     much     loSS     in     the     buttermilk,     dairy    thermometers. 

Longer    churning    is    of    no    advantage.    A  thermometer  should 

always    be    at    hand 

When  cows  are  on  pasture,  a  temperature  where  milk  is  cooled 
of  from  52°  to  56°  F.  is  usually  found  best,  °r  cream  churned' 
while  under  dry-feed  conditions  58°  to  64°  F.  is  more  suitable. 
A  thermometer  should  always  be  used  in  bringing  the 
cream  to  the  proper  churning  temperature.  Guessing  at  the 
temperature  often  means  poor  quality  of  butter  and  much 
waste  of  time.  The  churn  should  be  not  over  one-third  full, 
and  the  cream  should  have  about  25  to  30  per  cent  of  fat 
for  the  best  results.  Difficulty  in  churning  is  generally  to 
be  attributed  to  having  the  temperature  too  low,  the  cream 
too  thin,  or  the  churn  too  full.  At  times  trouble  that  cannot 
be  attributed  to  these  causes  is  experienced.  This  occurs 


188 


DAIRY  FARMING 


when  the  cream  is  from  cows  far  advanced  in  the  stage  of 
lactation  and  generally  during  the  season  when  dry  feeds 

are  fed  exclusively.    Under 

these 

itself 


fat 
fat 
the 
the 


conditions  the 
is  hard,  the 
globules  small,  and 
amount  of  casein  in 
milk  large.  All  these  con- 
ditions combine  to  make 
churning  difficult.  If  a 
cream  separator  is  in  use, 
the  trouble  may  be  partly 
removed  by  mixing  the 
cream  while  still  sweet 
with  three  or  four  times 
its  volume  of  warm  water 
FIG.  57.  —  The  most  widely  used,  and  and  running  this  mixture 

most  satisfactory  churn  for  farm  use. 

through      the      separator. 

This  affects  the  flavor  of  the  butter  somewhat,  but  makes 
the  churning  easier  by  removing 
part  of  the  casein. 

177.  Churns  and  Churning. 
For  farm  use  nothing  is  better 
than  the  ordinary  barrel  churn 
without  any  inside  fixtures. 
Large  farm  dairies  can  advanta- 
geously use  a  small-sized  com- 
bined churn  and  worker.  The 
cream  should  be  strained  into  the 
churn  through  a  wire  or  hair  FlG.  58.  _  combined  churn 
strainer  to  remove  particles  of  and  butter  worker»  adapted  for 

use   on    the   farm   where    large 
CUrd,  which  if  not  removed  Show     amounts  of  butter  are  made. 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


189 


as  white  specks  in  the  butter.  If  butter  color  is  used,  it 
should  be  added  to  the  cream  in  the  churn.  The  churn 
should  be  stopped  when  the  butter  granules  are  about  the 
size  of  kernels  of  corn,  or  a  little  smaller  in  thin  cream. 

The  buttermilk  is  drained  off  through  a  strainer.  The 
but  er  is  next  washed  to  remove  the  remainder  of  the  but- 
ten  dlk,  by  adding  about  as  much  water  as  there  was 


FIG.  59.  —  Butter  in  proper  condition  to  stop  churning. 

buttermilk.      This  should  be  at  a  temperature  of   50°  to 
56°  F. 

178.  Salting  and  Working.  After  washing,  the  butter  is 
placed  on  the  worker  and  the  salt  distributed  over  it. 
The  worker  and  the  ladles  used  are  previously  put  to  soak  in 
hot  water,  then  thoroughly  cooled  in  cold  water  before  using, 
to  prevent  the  butter  from  sticking  to  them.  The  amount  of 
salt  may  vary  some  with  the  market,  but  usually  one  ounce 
per  pound  of  butter  is  the  amount  preferred.  The  butter 


190 


DAIRY  FARMING 


is  next  worked  to  distribute  the  salt  and  to  make  the  butter 
into  a  compact  mass.  If  there  is  trouble  in  getting  the 
salt  dissolved,  the  butter  may  be  allowed  to  stand  a  few 
hours  in  a  cool  place  after  the  working  is  partly  done.  A 
second  working  is  then  given.  The  working  should  be  done 
slowly  and  mostly  by  pressure  rather  than  by  sliding  the 
ladle  or  working  utensil  over  the  butter.  The  working  should 
stop  when  the  salt  is  all  dissolved  and  the  body  of  the  butter 
compact  and  waxy.  Observation  of  the  condition  of  the 
butter  and  of  the  time  required  is  the  best  way  to  learn  the 
proper  stage  at  which  to  stop  working.  Overworking  makes 
the  butter  sticky  and  soft  in  texture,  underworking  results 
in  mottled  butter. 

179.    Package.     When  butter  is  placed  on  the   market, 
the  package  is  of  great  importance.     It  should  be  neat 

and  attractive  and  of 
proper  size.  The  rec- 
tangular one-pound 
prints  meet  with  the 
most  favor  every- 
where. They  should 
be  wrapped  in  good 
parchment  paper, 
which  may  be  pur- 
chased in  the  proper 
size,  8X11  inches,  at 
very  low  cost.  When  butter  is  shipped  or  handled  in  quan- 
tities, it  is  also  well  to  use  a  paraffined  paper  box  over  the 
parchment  paper,  known  as  a  carton,  which  protects  the 
butter.  To  secure  and  retain  a  good  retail  trade  requires 
a  uniformly  high  quality  of  butter  and  a  constant  supply 
during  the  year. 


FIG.  60.  —  A  hand  butter  worker  that  gives 
good  results  when  butter  is  made  on  the 
farm. 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


191 


FACTORY  PRODUCTS 

180.  Creameries.  This  name  is  commonly  applied  to 
fac  ories  manufacturing  butter  on  a  large  scale  and  from 
mile  supplied  by  several  or  many  herds.  The  amount  of 
butter  made  on  farms 
decreased  7  per  cent  in 
the  10  years  1899-1909, 
but  the  amount  made 
in  factories  increased  49 
per  cent.  The  great 
advantages  of  the  fac- 
tor- system  are  the 
saving  in  labor  and  the 
higl  ler  price  obtained 
for  :he  product. 

Ill    Some     places    the 

milk  is  taken  from  the  farm  to  the  creamery  for  separation. 

This  is  known  as  a  whole-milk  creamery.     In  others  the 

farmers  separate  the  cream  at  home  with 

fl  small  separators  and  deliver  the  cream  to 

^_J\,__  ^  ^-^  the  factory.  Some  creameries  are  owned 
by  the  farmers  and  operated  on  a  coop- 
erative basis,  while  others  are  owned  by 
individuals  or  companies. 

Many  centralizer  creameries   have   re- 
FIG.  62. —  Good 

butter  ladles.  Butter  cently  originated  in  the  Central  and 
JK^dT'hfld  Weste™  States.  Such  creameries  are 
located  in  cities  where  shipping  facilities 
are  good,  instead  of  in  a  cream-producing  neighborhood. 
Cream  is  purchased  by  local  agents  or  shipped  direct  to  the 
company  by  the  producer.  Shipments  are  at  times  made  as 


FIG.  61.  —  A  hand  butter  worker.  Where 
butter  is  made  in  lots  of  five  pounds  or  more 
a  worker  should  be  used. 


192  DAIRY  FARMING 

far  as  400  miles,  but  generally  within  a  50-mile  radius.  Some 
of  these  factories  have  the  capacity  of  forty  average-sized 
local  creameries.  The  cream  received  is  usually  sour  and 
too  old  for  the  best  results  in  butter  making.  However,  by 

skillful  methods  of  handling,  in 
the  way  of  pasteurizing  and  neu- 
tralizing the  cream  with  lime 
water,  it  is  possible  to  make  a  fair 
grade  of  butter.  This  type  of 
creamery  is  most  common  where 
the  producers  of  cream  are  widely 
scattered  so  that  a  local  creamery 
cannot  obtain  sufficient  raw  ma- 
terial. Under  these  conditions  the 
FIG.  63.  —  Butter  print.  The  centralizer  creamery  serves  a  useful 

rectangular  print  sells  best.       purpose)  but  where   the   gupply  of 

cream  is  sufficient  a  local  factory  is  to  be  recommended. 

181.  Cheese  Making.  This  important  industry  is  carried 
on  most  extensively  in  Wisconsin  and  in  New  York.  In 
1909  these  two  states  produced  over  79  per  cent  of  the  total 
product  in  this  country.  The  milk  of  about  850,000  cows 
is  used  for  this  purpose  in  the  United  States  and  the  value 
of  the  product  is  nearly  50  million  dollars  annually.  Only 
about  3  per  cent  of  the  cheese  is  made  on  farms.  Milk  for 
cheese  making  must  be  well  cared  for.  This  requires  a  fairly 
liberal  supply  of  milk  within  a  small  area.  On  the  average  10 
pounds  of  milk  are  required  for  1  pound  of  cheese.  Common 
American  Cheddar,  which  is  the  most  common  kind,  contains 
about  one-third  water,  one-third  fat,  and  one-third  casein. 

In  the  process  of  cheese  making  the  milk  is  coagulated  while 
it  is  in  a  perfectly  sweet  condition  by  the  addition  of  rennet 
extract.  Rennet  is  a  substance  obtained  from  the  wall  of 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  193 

the  stomach  of  calves  that  have  been  slaughtered  for  veal. 
It  is  secreted  by  glands  in  the  lining  of  the  stomach  in  all 
you  ig  animals  that  live  on  a  milk  diet.  The  casein  as  it  is 
coagulated  by  the  rennet  incloses  the  fat  with  it  and  forms 
curt ,.  This  curd  is  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  the  water 
gradually  expelled  by  careful  stirring  and  heating.  When 
the  proper  stage  is  reached,  the  curd  is  put  into  a  press  and 
suff  cient  pressure  is  applied  to  cause  it  to  unite  into  a  solid 
ma^  3.  When  the  pressing  is  completed,  the  cheese  is  put  away 
for  ripening.  Newly  made  cheese  is  not  good  to  eat.  It 
lacks  flavor  as  well  as  digestibility.  It  is  kept  for  a  period 
of  f  'om  six  weeks  to  six  months  for  curing  and  ripening. 

The  temperature  of  the  curing  room  must  be  carefully 
con-  rolled,  as  too  much  heat  will  injure  the  quality  of  the 
che(  se.  The  difficulty  of  proper  control  of  the  ripening  is 
the  most  serious  objection  to  making  cheese  on  the  farm, 
and  the  greatest  difficulty  to  be  overcome,  in  operating  a 
factory  in  a  climate  subject  to  great  extremes  of  heat.  Dur- 
ing 1;he  ripening,  the  protein  largely  changes  from  an  insoluble 
to  a  soluble  form  and  in  this  way  becomes  much  more  digesti- 
ble. The  typical  flavor  is  developed  at  the  same  time. 

182.  Condensed  Milk.  The  process  of  condensing  milk 
was  invented  by  Borden  in  1856.  For  the  year  1909  the 
value  of  condensed  milk  in  the  United  States  was  nearly  34 
million  dollars.  The  process  consists  in  removing  a  portion 
of  the  water  from  the  milk  by  heating  it  in  a  partial  vacuum. 
The  milk  used  must  be  fresh  and  in  good  condition.  The 
milk  is  condensed  until  2J  parts  of  the  fresh  milk  make  1 
part  of  the  condensed.  Two  classes  of  condensed,  milk  are 
commonly  made.  One  is  known  as  sweetened,  since  cane 
sugar  is  added  until  the  finished  product  contains  40  per 
cent  sugar.  Condensed  milk  of  this  class  is  preserved 


194  DAIRY  FARMING 

chiefly  by  the  large  amount  of  sugar  present.  The  other 
class  is  the  unsweetened.  Nothing  is  added  to  the  milk. 
The  preservation  depends  upon  heating  the  product  after 
it  is  in  cans  in  a  steam  oven  under  pressure  until  it  is 
completely  sterilized.  Several  grades  of  this  class  are  made. 
A  condensed  milk  factory  can  only  be  operated  where  a  large 
supply  of  perfectly  fresh  milk  can  be  obtained.  The  con- 
densary  is  usually  a  good  market  for  milk,  but  the  farmer 
supplying  the  milk  has  the  same  trouble  raising  his  calves 
as  in  the  case  where  whole  milk  is  sold  in  any  other  form. 

183.  Milk  Flour.  A  few  factories  make  powdered  milk, 
or  milk  flour.  For  this  a  part  of  the  fat  is  removed,  and 
the  milk  is  dried  to  make  a  fine  white  powder  that  keeps 
well.  When  water  is  added,  the  powder  dissolves. 

QUESTIONS    AND    PROBLEMS 

1.  Which  is  heavier,  cream  or  skim-milk? 

2.  What  purpose  does  each  of  the  constituents  of  milk  serve 
when  used  as  food?     Which  is  the  most  important  constituent? 

3.  Compare  the  amount  of  fat  in  Holstein  milk  with  the  amount 
in  Jersey  milk  when  the  latter  is  considered  as  100  per  cent.     Com- 
pare the  protein  in  the  same  way. 

4.  Why  is  the  percentage  of  fat  not  an  accurate  measure  of  the 
value  of  milk  as  food  ? 

5.  Is  it  possible  to  increase  the  percentage  of  fat  in  milk  by 
changing  the  feed  ? 

6.  Is  the  color  of  milk  a  sure  indication  of  the  percentage  of 
butter-fat  contained  ? 

7.  Where  does  each  constituent  of  the  milk  go  when  milk  is 
used  for  butter  making  ?     For  cheese  making  ? 

8.  What  reasons  are  there  for  stripping  a  cow  ? 

9.  What  are  the  legal  standards  of  your  state  for  milk  and 
butter  ?     Some  of  this  information  is  given  on  page  297.     What  are 
the  restrictions  on  the  sale  of  oleomargarine  ? 

10.  What  principle  of  physics  is  the  basis  for  the  operation  of 
the  cream  separator  and  of  the  Babcock  milk  test? 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


195 


11.  How  many  cows  would  be  required  where  the  shallow-pan 
syst  om  is  used,  to  supply  as  much  cream  as  would  be  secured  from  6 
cow  s  when  the  centrifugal  separator  is  used  ? 

12.  Why  is  butter  yellow  in  summer,  and  much  lighter  in  color 
in  v  inter  ? 

13.  What  is  a  farrow  cow  ?     Why  is  cream  from  her  milk  likely 
to  1  e  hard  to  churn? 

1 4.  What  is  the  leading  dairy  product  in  your  region  ? 

15.  Is  more  or  less  of  the  butter  in  your  region  made  in  factories 
tha  i  formerly? 

16.  What  butter  or  cheese  factories  are  there  in  the  region? 

1 7.  What  dairy  products  are  sold  in  your  local  stores  ?     Where 
do  '  hey  come  from  ? 

1 8.  The  following  table  gives  results  for  1909.     Using  data  given 
in  t  lis  chapter,  fill  in  the  blanks. 


BUTTER 

CHEESE 

CONDENSED  MILK 

Pounds 
Produced 

Butter- 
fat 
Re- 
quired 

Pounds 
of 
Milk 
Re- 
quired 

Pounds 
Produced 

Pounds 
Milk 
Re- 
quired 

Pounds 
Produced 

Pounds 
Milk 
Re- 
quired 

Mad?  on  farms 
Mad  3     in     fac- 
tories   .     .     . 

Tital    .     .     . 

994,650,610 
624,764,653 

9,405,864 
311,126,317 

494,796,544 

1,619,415,263 

320,532,181 

494,796,544 

LABORATORY   EXERCISES 

COMPOSITION  OF  MILK 

15.  Butter-fat.     Examine  some  milk  under  the  microscope,  using 
preferably  a  one-sixth  objective,  and  make  drawings  of  the  fat 
globules  showing  the  variations  in  size. 

16.  Casein  of  Milk.     This  part  of  milk  is  precipitated  by  dilute 
acids.     Place  10  c.c.  of  skim-milk  in  a  200  c.c.  beaker  and  add  90 
c.c.  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  100°  F.     Immediately  add  1.5  c.c. 
of  a  10  per  cent  solution  of  acetic  acid.     Let  it  stand  20  minutes 
with  occasional  stirring.     Filter,  using  ordinary  filter  paper,  saving 
the  filtrate  in  another  beaker.    The  residue  on  the  paper  is  the  casein. 
The  albumin,  sugar,  and  ash  are  in  the  filtrate. 

17.  Albumin  of  Milk.     Heat  the  filtrate  from  the  above  rapidly, 
and  boil  until  the  solution  can  be  filtered  with  a  clear  filtrate.     Filter 


196  DAIRY  FARMING 

while  hot.     The  residue  on  the  filter  paper  is  the  albumin.    The  sugar 
and  the  ash  remain  in  the  filtrate. 

18.  Milk  Sugar.     The  milk  sugar  is  not  easily  separated  from 
the  ash.     Its  presence  may  be  demonstrated  by  using  Fehling's 
solution  as  follows.      To  10  c.c.  of  the  filtrate  add  5  c.c.  of  Fehling's 
solution  and  boil.     The  red  precipitate  shows  the  presence  of  sugar. 

19.  Ash  of  Milk.    The  presence  of  ash  may  be  demonstrated  as 
follows.     Take  25  c.c.  of  milk  in  an  evaporating  dish.     Add  a  few 
drops  of  acetic  acid.     Place  evaporating  dish  and  contents  on  a  sand 
bath  and  evaporate  to  dryness.     Allow  to  char  slightly,  then  place 
on  a  wire  gauze  over  a  gas  burner  and  heat  until  contents  char.     Re- 
move the  gauze  and  heat  over  a  full  flame  until  all  of  the  carbon  is 
burned  off.     The  gray  residue  is  the  ash,  or  mineral  matter. 

THE   BABCOCKTEST   FOR   MILK 

20.  Test  of  Whole  Milk.    Apparatus  needed  :  a  hand  power  cen- 
trifuge or  testing  machine,  4  to  6  milk  test  bottles,  a  pipette  to 
measure  the  milk,  an  acid  measure,  ordinary  commercial  sulfurio 
acid,  a  small  sample  of  milk,  and  some  hot  water.     The  apparatus 
may  be  purchased  from  any  dealer  in  dairy  supplies.     Sulfuric  acid 
may  be  obtained  at  any  drug  store. 

Sampling  the  Milk.  The  accuracy  of  the  test  depends  largely  on 
the  sample  taken.  The  milk  to  be  tested  should  be  thoroughly 
mixed,  preferably  by  pouring  several  times  from  one  jar  to  another. 
The  milk  should  be  at  ordinary  room  temperature.  The  small  end 
of  the  pipette  is  placed  in  the  milk  and  the  milk  drawn  in  by  suck- 
ing slowly  at  the  upper  end.  The  milk  is  drawn  somewhat  above 
the  mark  which  indicates  17.6  c.c.,  and  the  first  finger  is  then  quickly 
slipped  over  the  top  of  the  pipette.  The  milk  is  then  allowed  to 
escape  slowly  until  the  surface  is  at  the  mark  on  the  pipette.  The 
small  end  of  the  pipette  is  now  placed  in  the  neck  of  the  test  bottle 
and  the  milk  allowed  to  flow  into  the  test  bottle.  The  last  drop 
remaining  in  the  point  of  the  pipette  should  be  blown  out  into  the 
test  bottle.  It  is  always  well  to  make  duplicate  tests  of  each 
sample. 

Adding  the  Add.  When  all  the  samples  are  measured  out,  the 
acid  should  be  added.  The  acid  measure  is  filled  to  the  17.5  c.c. 
mark  with  acid  that  is  at  room  temperature.  The  acid  is  now 
poured  into  the  test  bottle,  holding  the  bottle  in  an  inclined  position 
so  that  it  runs  down  the  neck  and  side  of  the  bottle  and  forms  a 
clear  layer  at  the  bottom.  Next  take  the  bottle  by  the  neck  and 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  197 

giv<  it  a  gentle  rotary  motion  until  the  curd  of  the  milk  is  entirely 
dissolved,  and  the  mixture  of  acid  and  milk  is  of  a  uniform  dark  cof- 
fee ?olor  and  very  hot.  This  change  in  appearance  and  in  tempera- 
tun  is  the  result  of  the  action  of  the  acid  upon  the  constituents  of 
the  milk,  all  of  which  are  dissolved  except  the  fat,  which  is  not 
affe  ?ted. 

Whirling  the  Bottles.  The  bottles  are  now  put  in  the  centri- 
fug  .  They  should  be  quite  hot  throughout  the  whirling.  Test- 
ing should  not  be  done  in  a  cold  room.  It  is  generally  necessary  to 
pla«  e  some  boiling  water  in  the  bottom  of  a  hand  centrifuge  to  keep 
up  he  heat  during  the  whirling.  The  test  bottles  should  be  placed 
in  1  lie  machine  so  that  they  balance  each  other.  The  machine  is 
ope  -ated  for  five  minutes  at  the  proper  speed  for  the  machine,  700 
to  000  revolutions  of  the  disk  per  minute,  depending  upon  the  size 
of  ihe  revolving  parts.  At  the  end  of  five  minutes  the  machine 
is  si  opped,  and  hot  water  is  added  to  each  bottle  by  means  of  the 
pip<  tte  until  the  contents  come  up  to  the  bottom  of  the  neck. 
Tilt  ti  whirl  the  machine  two  minutes  more  and  add  hot  water 
to  bring  the  fat  column  near  the  top  of  the  graduations  on  the 
neck.  Whirl  one  minute  and  the  tests  are  ready  for  reading. 
The  fat  should  be  clear  and  free  from  black  sediment  below,  or 
f  oai  i  on  top. 

Reading  the  Test.  The  test  bottles  should  be  placed  for  a  few 
minutes  in  a  deep  pail  or  pan  of  water,  the  temperature  of  which  is 
regulated  to  130°  F.  The  fat  should  be  in  a  fluid  condition.  In 
reading,  the  test  bottle  should  be  held  in  a  perpendicular  position 
on  the  level  with  the  eye. 

I1  he  reading  on  the  graduated  scale  should  be  noted  at  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  fat  column,,  This  reading  is  made  from  the  ex- 
treme bottom  of  the  fat  column  to  the  straight  line  which  is  seen 
across  the  top,  and  not  to  the  curved  line  which  appears  just  below. 
The  difference  between  the  two  readings  is  the  percentage  of  fat  in 
the  milk.  The  neck  of  the  bottle  is  graduated  into  large  divisions 
which  represent  per  cent,  and  these  again  into  smaller  divisions, 
each  of  which  may  be  0.1  per  cent,  or  0.2  per  cent,  depending  upon 
the  style  of  the  bottle. 

Suggestions  on  Making  the  Bdbcock  Test.  1.  Use  the  index 
finger,  not  the  thumb,  for  closing  the  pipette.  Keep  the  finger  dry. 

2.  Draw  the  milk  above  the  mark  when  measuring,  and  then  hold 
the  pipette  on  level  with  the  eye  as  the  milk  is  allowed  to  flow  a 
drop  at  a  time  until  the  mark  is  reached. 


198  DAIRY  FARMING 

3.  Hold  the  bottle  in  a  slanting  position  when  adding  acid, 
and  do  not   allow  the  mouth  of   the  bottle  to  point  toward  any 
one  while  the  milk  and  acid  are  being  mixed,  as  occasionally  the 
contents  may  be  forced  out  suddenly. 

4.  Wash  the  pipette  thoroughly,  and  dip  it  in  hot  water  after 
using. 

5.  The  testing  machine  must  be  fastened  securely  to  a  heavy 
table  or  bench.     Start  and  stop  the  machine  slowly. 

6.  If  black  sediment  appears  in  the  fat  column,  the  indications 
are  that  the  acid  was  too  strong.     Use  slightly  less.     If  white  specks 
are  present,  it  is  probable  the  action  of  the  acid  was  too  weak.     Use 
a  little  more,  or  warm  the  milk  10  or  20  degrees  before  adding  the  acid. 

7.  Wash  the  test  bottles  at  once  after  using  by  means  of  hot 
water  and  some  washing  powder.     Rinse  thoroughly  in  clean  water 
to  remove  all  traces  of  washing  powder. 

8.  Remember  the  acid  is  poison  and  will  burn  the  clothing  or 
skin.     If  spilled  on  anything,  pour  on  plenty  of  water  and  add  some 
lime,  soda,  or  washing  powder  to  neutralize  the  acid. 

21.  Cream   Testing.     When   cream  is  sold  on  the  basis  of  the 
fat  content,  the  samples  for  testing  must  be  weighed  rather  than 
measured.     A  test  may  be  made  by  the  following  method,  but  it 
must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  results  are  not  entirely  accurate 
and  tend  to  be  lower  than  the  true  reading. 

Mix  the  cream  thoroughly  and  by  the  use  of  the  milk-testing 
pipette,  place  17.6  c.c.  in  a  clean  cup  or  beaker.  Next  fill  the  pipette 
to  the  mark  with  water  and  add  to  the  cream.  Add  a  second  pi- 
pette full  of  water  in  the  same  manner.  Mix  thoroughly  and  test  in 
the  same  manner  as  would  be  done  for  milk.  Since  the  mixture 
tested  is  only  one-third  cream,  the  percentage  of  fat  found  must  be 
multiplied  by  three  to  give  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  cream. 

VARIATIONS   IN   AMOUNT    OF   FAT    IN   MILK 

22.  Fat  in  Milk  of  Different  Cows.      Obtain  samples  of  milk 
from  several  different  cows  and  determine  the  percentage  of  fat  in 
each  with  the  Babcock  tester.     If  the  weight  of  milk  can  be  taken 
at  the  same  time,  calculate  the  amount  of  butter-fat  each  cow 
produced.     Samples  for  testing  should  be  taken  by  thoroughly 
mixing  all  the  milk  produced  by  the  cow  before  taking  out  the 
small  portion  from  which  the  test  is  to  be  made. 

23.  Fat  in  Milk  of  Different  Breeds.     Take  samples  from  cows 
of  as  many  breeds  as  are  available  and  test  each  for  fat. 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  199 

24.  Fat  in  First  and  Last  Milk.     Take  a  sample  from  a  single 
co^  by  milking  the  first  few  streams  of  milk  from  each  teat  into  a 
jar  or  bottle.     Take  the  last  strippings  from  the  same  cow  in  the 
san:e  manner,  and  test  both  for  fat. 

25.  Fat  in  Milk  Sold  on  the  Local  Market.     Students  from  homes 
win  re  milk  •  is  purchased  should  each  bring  a  sample  for  testing, 
tak  ng  special  care  to  get  a  fair  sample  in  order  that  injustice  may 
not  be  done  the  milk  dealer. 

26.  Modified   Milk.     Using  one  of  the  samples  of  milk  pre- 
vio  isly  tested,  modify  it  by  the  addition  of  water  and  milk  sugar 
to  make  it  suitable  for  infant  feeding.     Modify  another  sample  to 
maize  it  suitable  for  a  colt. 

27.  Milk  of  Different  Animals.      Obtain  milk  from  as  many 
different  kinds  of  animals  as  possible,  mare,  sheep,  etc.,  and  test 
for  fat. 

ESTIMATION    OF   TOTAL   SOLIDS 

28.  Total  Solids.     For  this  exercise  a  Quevenne  lactometer  and  a 
glass  cylinder  are  required.     Bring  the  milk  sample  to  a  temperature 
of  exactly  60°  F.,  and  place  in  the  cylinder.     Place  the  lactometer  in 
the  milk  slowly  and  carefully.     When  it  comes  to  rest,  note  the  read- 
ing at  the  surface  of  the  milk.     By  placing  1.0  before  this  reading  we 
have  the  specific  gravity  of  the  milk.     For  example,  if  the  reading  is 
32,  ohe  specific  gravity  of  the  milk  is  1.032,  or  that  of  average  milk. 
The  solids  not  fat  and  the  total  solids  may  be  estimated  from  this 
and  the  Babcock  reading  by  using  Babcock's  formula  as  follows,  in 
which  I  is  the  lactometer  reading  and  /  the  per  cent  of  fat. 

-r  +  .2  f .  =  solids  not  fat. 
Solids  not  fat  +  fat  =  total  solids. 

Now  add  one-fourth  water  to  the  milk,  and  repeat  the  test  as 
described.  The  results  will  illustrate  one  method  of  detecting 
water  in  milk.  No  attempt  should  be  made  to  use  this  method  for 
detecting  water,  except  in  an  experimental  way,  unless  the  user  is  a 
trained  chemist. 

KEEPING   QUALITY   OF   MILK 

29.  Effect    of    Temperature.     When   practicable    the    following 
experiment  can  be  made  advantageously. 

Obtain  a  quantity  of  fresh  milk,  preferably  not  more  than  3  hours 
after  milking.  Divide  into  two  parts,  cool  one  part  to  50°  F.  at 


200  DAIRY   FARMING 

once  and  store  in  ice  water  or  in  an  ice  box.  Adjust  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  other  sample  to  between  70°  and  80°  and  leave  in  a  warm 
room.  How  long  before  each  sours  ? 

"CREAM  SEPARATORS 

30.  Separation  of  Cream.     The  students  should  obtain  samples 
of  skim-milk  from  as  many  sources  as  possible,  some  from  cream 
separators,  and  others  from  places  where  the  cream  is  separated  by 
gravity.    Make  the  Babcock  test,  preferably  using  a  special  skim- 
milk  test  bottle.     What  was  the  loss  of  butter-fat  by  each  method 
of  separation  ? 

BUTTER   AND   CHEESE 

31.  Study  of  a  Factory.     Visit  a  butter,  cheese,  or  condensed 
milk  factory,  and  learn  as  much  as  possible  of  the  methods  of  manu- 
facture, also  of  the  methods  of  buying,  selling,  and  management. 

32.  Judging  Butter.     If  the  assistance  of  a  creamery  man  or 
other  competent  judge  of  butter  can  be  had,  the  class  may  gather 
a  number  of  butter  samples  representing  the  local  supply,  and  judge 
them  with  his  assistance. 

CHEESE 

33.  Making  Curd.     Dissolve  a  rennet  tablet  according  to  the 
directions  of  the  manufacturer,  add  it  to  milk  and  observe  the  effect. 
Compare  the  curd  formed  with  that  from  sour  milk  in  taste  and  con- 
dition.    Curd  made  in  this  way  is  used  in  cheese  making. 

34.  Fat  in  Cheese.     Weigh  out  5  grams  of  cheese,  cut  it  into 
small  pieces,  and  put  in  a  milk  test  bottle.     Add  10  cc.  of  warm 
water  and  acid  as  in  testing  milk.     After  the  cheese  is  dissolved, 
complete  the  test  as  for  milk. 

Since  the  test  bottle  is  graduated  for  18  grams,  the  percentage  of 
fat  for  the  cheese  must  be  calculated  for  that  amount  by  dividing 
the  fat  reading  by  the  weight  of  cheese  taken  in  grams  and  multi- 
plying the  result  by  18. 

COLLATERAL    READING 

The  Production  of  Clean  Milk,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulle- 
tin 602. 

Bacteria  in  Milk,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  490. 

The  Care  of  Milk  and  Its  Use  in  the  Home,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Farmers'  Bulletin  416. 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  201 

The  Use  of  Milk  as  Food,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  363. 

The  Application  of  Refrigeration  to  the  Handling  of  Milk,  U.  S. 
Dot.  Agr.,  Bulletin  98. 

K'arm  Butter  Making,  U.  S.  Dept  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  541. 

Cream  Separators  on  Western  Farms,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers' 
Bu.letin  201. 

Household  Tests  for  the  Detection  of  Oleomargarine  and  Reno- 
va  ed  Butter,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  131. 

Cheese  Making  on  the  Farm,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin 
161  . 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  L.  H.  Bailey,  Vol.  Ill,  pp. 
17.-246. 

Medical  Milk  Commission  and  Certified  Milk,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 

Bulletin  1. 

Condensed  Milk  and  Milk  Powder,  O.  F.  Hunziker. 

Milk  and  Its  Products,  H.  H.  Wing. 


CHAPTER  9 


CONDITIONS   AFFECTING   THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF 
DAIRYING 

G.  F.  WARREN 

184.  Cattle  and  Grass.  Cattle  raising  goes  with  the 
raising  of  hay  and  forage  crops.  How  closely  the  growth  of 
these  crops  limits  the  production  of  cattle  is  shown  by  Figs. 


FIG.  64.  —  Distribution  of  the  hay  and  forage  crops  of  the  United  States. 
Compare  with  Fig.  65. 

64  and  65,  taken  from  the  United  States  Census  reports. 
In  the  South  and  in  the  arid  regions  there  are  a  few 
more  cattle  than  the  hay  and  forage  crops  would  suggest, 
because  some  of  the  cattle  in  these  regions  are  pastured  all 
the  year  and  therefore  require  little  or  no  hay. 

202 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  DAIRYING 


203 


TABLE  22.  —  CATTLE  AND  HAY  AND  FORAGE   (CENSUS  OF  1910) 


REGION 

CATTLE 

DAIRY  Cows 

TONS  HAY 
AND  FORAGE 

Nev  England 

1  336  550 

841  698 

4  659,906 

Middle  Atlantic  .... 
Eas  North  Central  .  .  . 
Wes4  North  Central  .  .  . 
Pae  fie  

4,232,521 
9,819,097 
17,647,714 
3  204,400 

2,597,652 
4,829,527 
5,327,606 
826,115 

11,302,178 
20,391,562 
36,326,167 
7,306,590 

Moi.ntain  
Sou  h  Atlantic 

6,060,725 
4  839  321 

514,466 
1  810,754 

8,600,736 
2,917,870 

Eas  South  Central  .  .  . 
We.-  fc  South  Central  .  .  . 

3,942,526 
10,721,012 

1,628,061 
2,249,553 

2,565,716 
3,383,010 

135.  Topography  and  Climate.  As  has  already  been  indi- 
cate d  cool  regions  are  more  favorable  than  hot  ones  for  the 
daii  y  cow  as  well  as  for  the  manufacture  of  dairy  products. 


FIG.  65.  —  Distribution  of  cattle  in'  the  United  States. 

Most  of  the  cattle  of  the  world  are  grown  on  pastures  on 
land  that  is  too  dry,  too  wet,  too  steep,  too  stony,  or  other- 
wise not  adapted  for  the  growth  of  crops.  All  regions  that 


204  DAIRY  FARMING 

have  such  pastures  keep  cattle  or  sheep.  In  regions  where 
all  the  land  is  well  adapted  to  crops,  cattle  production  is 
usually  but  not  always  a  minor  business.  But  cattle  are 
often  fattened  in  such  regions.  Very  frequently  the  final 
factor  in  determining  whether  cattle  shall  be  kept  is  the 
presence  or  absence  of  land  that  is  good  for  pasture,  but  not 
good  for  crop  production.  For  instance,  in  parts  of  the 
corn-belt  there  is  so  little  rough  pasture  land  that  fewer 


FIG.  66.  —  Using  the  stony  land  for  pasture. 


cows  are  kept  than  otherwise  would  be.  Most  of  the  milk 
supply  for  Chicago  and  for  New  York  comes  from  north  of 
these  cities,  partly  because  of  the  presence  of  pastures  and 
partly  because  of  the  cooler  climate. 

186.  Location  of  Beef  and  Dairy  Cattle.  It  is  apparent 
that  the  number  of  cattle  in  a  region  is  directly  dependent 
on  the  presence  of  hay  and  forage  crops,  or  on  ranges. 
Whether  the  cattle  shall  be  of  the  beef  or  dairy  type  de- 
pends primarily  on  the  distance  to  the  centers  of  popu- 
lation. Beef  animals  can  be  shipped  long  distances.  They 
are  therefore  grown  farthest  from  the  centers  of  population. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  DAIRYING  205 

Sev  mty-four  per  cent  of  the  steers  and  bulls  in  the  United 
Stages  are  west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  but  only  thirty 
per  cent  of  the  population  is  in  that  region. 

The  relative  weight  and  bulk  of  the  feed  and  of  the  human 
foo<  made  from  it,  the  perishability  of  the  product,  and  the 
cost  of  feed  are  the  primary  factors  that  determine  where 
different  animal  products  shall  be  raised.  When  a  liberal 


FIG.  07.  —  A  dairy  region  where  the  level  land  is  used  for  crops,  the  side 
hills  for  pasture  and  the  poorest  land  is  left  in  woods. 


use  of  corn  silage  and  pasture  is  made,  and  if  we  include 
the  feed  for  the  young  stock  as  well  as  for  the  mature  ani- 
mals, a  pound  of  butter  represents  approximately  100  pounds 
of  feed.  A  pound  of  cheese  or  dressed  beef  represents  about 
50  pounds  of  feed,  and  a  pound  of  milk  5  pounds  of  feed. 

If  drier  feeds  are  used,  the  quantities  will  be  less,  but 
approximately  the  same  proportions  will  still  hold.  With 
hay  and  grain  a  cow  sometimes  gives  a  pound  of  milk  for 
each  pound  of  feed.  A  steer  fed  in  a  box  stall  for  three 
years  used  38  pounds  of  feed  for  each  pound  of  dressed  beef.1 

*  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  Report,  1893,  p.  122. 


206 


DAIRY  FARMING 


Evidently  cattle  may  be  used  to  condense  large  quantities  of 
roughage  into  beef  and  butter  for  shipment  to  distant  markets. 
Another  factor  favoring  the  location  of  beef  cattle  in  the 
regions  of  least  population  is  the  fact  that  beef  animals  can 
thrive  on  ranges  that  are  too  poor  to  support  a  good  dairy 
cow.  In  the  irrigated  valleys  of  the  Northwest  that  have 


FIG.  68.  —  Distribution  of  dairy  cows  in  the  United  States.  The  largest 
numbers  of  dairy  cows  are  kept  in  the  cool  regions  that  have  good  blue- 
grass  pastures. 

excellent  blue-grass  pastures  dairy  cows  have  practically 
displaced  beef  cattle,  but  the  dry  range  grasses  that  are 
just  above  the  irrigation  ditch  are  given  over  to  beef  cattle 
or  sheep.  Most  of  the  beef  animals  are  raised  west  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  although  many  of  them  are  fattened  east 
of  it. 

In  1910  the  New  England,  Middle  Atlantic  and  East 
North  Central  States  had  over  4  out  of  each  10  dairy  cows 
in  the  United  States,  but  had  less  than  1  out  of  each  10 
other  cows. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  DAIRYING 


207 


Vhe  adjustment  that  the  farmers  have  made  to  meet  the 
coi  ditions  is  shown  in  Table  23.  On  April  1,  1910,  Nebraska 
am  Iowa  had  more  than  one-fourth  as  many  yearling  steers 
an<  bulls  (3  months  to  15  months)  as  they  had  cows  and 
hei  'ers  (15  months  old  or  older).  Practically  all  the  calves 
bom  in  these  states  are  raised.  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio 
ha<  less  than  one-sixth  as  many  yearling  steers  or  bulls  as 

TABLE  23.  —  STEERS  ON  FARMS  ON  APRIL  1,  1910 


STATE 

STEERS  AND  BULLS 
BORN  IN  1909,  PER  100 
Cows1 

STEERS  AND  BULLS 
BORN  BEFORE  1909,  PER 
100  Cows 

Colorado    

18 

46 

Nel  raska        .... 

26 

40 

Iowa      
Illii  ois  .... 

28 
15 

36 
20 

Indiana      
Ohio      . 

15 
14 

15 
15 

Nevr  York      .... 

4 

3 

Massachusetts    .     .     . 

3 

3 

cows,  and  New  York  and  Massachusetts  had  only  one  steer 
or  bull  for  15  to  16  cows.  In  these  two  states  practically 
no  steers  are  kept.  The  number  reported  represents  practi- 
cally the  number  of  bulls.  Instead  of  raising  steers,  these 
two  Eastern  States  sell  practically  all  their  bull  calves  as 
veal.  Near  the  cities,  both  the  heifer  and  bull  calves  are 
often  killed  at  birth,  as  feed  is  too  expensive  to  make  it  pay 
to  keep  them  even  up  to  the  legal  age  for  veal.  The  East 
Central  States  sell  many  of  their  calves  for  veal,  but  raise 
some  steers.  The  West  Central  States  raise  nearly  all  their 


1  Number  of  steers  and  bulls  for  each  100  cows  and  heifers  born  before 
Jan.  1,  1909.  Since  many  heifers  too  young  to  have  calves  are  included 
with  cows,  the  figures  are  all  low  in  terms  of  milch  cows. 


208 


DAIRY  FARMING 


calves.  .  The  age  at  which  the  steers  are  sold  also  shows 
an  adjustment  to  feed  prices.  The  Western  States  keep 
their  steers  to  two  or  three  years  of  age,  as  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  they  have  twice  as  many  of  the  older  ones  as  of 
the  yearlings. 

During  the  past  few  years  there  has  been  some  discussion 
about  introducing  beef  cattle  in  the  Northeast,  but  there 


DAIRY  PRODUCTS 
R.ECEIPTS    FROM     SALE.  19O9 


FIG.  69.  —  Receipts  from  the  sale  of  dairy  products.  This  map  shows 
the  location  of  the  centers  of  commercial  dairying,  as  contrasted  with  those 
in  which  cows  are  kept  to  supply  products  for  home  use  only.1 

is  little  chance  for  such  an  enterprise  to  succeed.  The  sum- 
mer pastures  are  fairly  cheap,  but  the  cost  of  winter  feed  for 
a  beef  cow  is  more  than  the  value  of  her  calf. 

187.  Relation  of  Transportation  to  Dairying.  Not  only  are 
the  relative  positions  of  beef  and  dairy  cattle  determined  by 
the  problem  of  transportation,  but  in  dairy  regions  the  kind 
of  product  that  is  to  be  produced  is  controlled  by  the  dis- 
tance that  the  products  must  be  shipped.  Butter,  cheese, 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1915,  p.  395. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  DAIRYING 


209 


milk  flour,  and  condensed  milk  are  concentrated  for  their 
value  and  can  be  shipped  long  distances.  Cream  for  direct 
use  can  be  shipped  farther  than  milk  because  it  is  more  con- 
cei  trated  for  its  value.  It  is  sometimes  shipped  from  St. 


Percent 

Ol  lOWoc 

orice 
200 

175 

£ 

150 

/ 

£ 

•f  —  "  ""  " 

H<#.  

.y*'" 

125 

jf 

•—.... 

/ 

^^x*" 

.X 

-       Cc 

rC--"" 

/ 

^ 

100 

-»    -ftv»| 

*  ^^^^ 

75 

^          — 

1  •  „ 

&u\\2- 

^^ 

Iowa.     lit.        Ii\d      Ohio     N.Y    Mass 

Fm.  70. — Average  farm  prices  for  five  years,  1910-1914.  As  we  go 
eastward  the  prices  of  hay  and  corn  rise  faster  than  does  the  price  of  butter. 
This-  favors  the  production  of  butter  where  feed  is  cheap. 

Lawrence  County,  New  York,  to  Washington,  D.  C.,  about 
500  miles. 

Milk  is  the  most  bulky  of  the  dairy  products  for  its  value 
and  is  also  very  perishable,  so  that  it  is  produced  nearest  to 
the  places  where  it  is  to  be  consumed.  The  city  must 
reach  out  just  far  enough  to  obtain  its  necessary  supply. 
Milk  is  now  regularly  shipped  to  New  York  City  from  points 
over  300  miles  away. 

Farms  that  are  favorably  situated  for  the  sale  of  milk 
cannot  afford  to  produce  butter  for  sale  on  the  wholesale  mar- 
ket. Hay  and  other  feeds  are  too  valuable  nearer  the  cities, 
p 


210 


DAIRY  FARMING 


One  who  under  such  conditions  produces  butter  or  cheese 
is  using  more  expensive  raw  materials  and  gets  little  if  any 
more  for  his  product. 

In  1912  farmers  who  sold  milk  to  cities  in  different  parts 
of  the  United  States  received  an  average  of  3.57  cents  per 
quart  above  all  shipping  costs.  The  averages  varied  from 
2.9  to  4.4  cents  for  different  cities.1  In  the  same  year  the 
average  farm  price  of  butter  was  26.1  cents  per  pound.2 
The  price  received  for  the  milk  was  probably  equal  to  36 
cents  per  pound  for  butter. 

How  difficult  it  is  for  farmers  near  cities  to  compete  in 
butter  production  with  those  who  have  cheaper  feed  is 
shown  by  a  comparison  of  prices  in  New  York  and  Iowa. 
The  average  farm  prices  in  1914  are  given  in  Table  24. 

TABLE  24.  —  AVERAGE  FARM  PRICES  IN  IOWA  AND  IN  NEW  YORK  3 


IOWA 

NEW 

YORK 

Butter      

$       .26 

$     .31 

Per  Cent  of 
Iowa  Price 

119 

Hay                                    .     . 

10.10 

14.60 

145 

Com    

.55 

.83 

151 

Butter  was  only  19  per  cent  higher  on  New  York  farms 
than  on  Iowa  farms,  but  hay  was  45  per  cent  higher  and 
corn  51  per  cent  higher  than  in  Iowa.  Other  feeds  are  in 
about  the  same  proportion.  It  is  evident  that  butter  and 
cheese  production  must  shift  to  the  regions  of  cheap  feed. 
This  shift  is  most  strikingly  shown  by  census  figures.  All 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Weekly  News  Letter  to  Crop  Reporters,  Sept.  24, 
1913. 

2  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1912,  p.  686. 

3  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1914,  pp.  516,  570,  626. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  DAIRYING 


211 


of  the  northern  states  east  of  Indiana  produced  much  less 
but  er  in  1909  than  they  did  ten  years  before.  The  Chicago 
den  and  for  milk  was  strong  enough  to  cause  a  decrease  in 
but  er  production  in  Illinois. 

Ii  New  York,  butter  production  decreased  40  per  cent  and 
che  ;se  production  decreased  19  per  cent  in  ten  years.     At 


CREAMERIES 


EACH    DOT    REPRESENTS 


FIG.  71.  —  Location  of  creameries  in  the  United  States.1 

the  same  time  cheese  production  increased  88  per  cent  in 
Wisconsin,  and  butter  production  increased  50  per  cent  in 
Minnesota. 

The  great  center  of  butter  production  is  west  of  Chicago. 
More  butter  is  shipped  from  Chicago  to  the  Eastern  States 
than  is  produced  in  the  nine  North  Atlantic  States.2  Wis- 
consin, Iowa,  and  Minnesota  are  the  leading  butter  states, 
in  the  order  named.  From  the  rapid  rate  of  increase,  it  is 
probable  that  Minnesota  will  rank  first  at  the  next  census 


1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1915,  p.  396. 

2  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bulletin  177. 


212 


DAIRY  FARMING 


period.     There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  any  other  state 
will  be  a  close  competitor  with  Wisconsin  in  cheese  production. 

TABLE  25.  —  POUNDS  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE   MADE  ON  FARMS 
AND  IN  FACTORIES1 


BUTTER 

CHEESE 

1899 

1909 

Per  Cent 
Increase 

1899 

1909 

Per  Cent 
Increase 

New  York 

115,408,222 

69,358,918 

-40 

130,010,584 

105,584,947 

-19 

Wisconsin 

106,552,649 

131,085,193 

23 

79,384,298 

148,906,910 

88 

Minnesota 

82,363,315 

123,551,515 

50 

These  declines  in  New  York  do  not  mean  that  the  dairy 
business  has  declined.     They  merely  show  that  the  readily 


CHEESE    FACTORIES 
1914 


FIG.  72.  —  Location  of  cheese  factories  in  the  United  States.2 

transportable  dairy  products  are  coming  from  regions  of 
cheaper  feed.     At  the  same  time  that  these  decreases  have 


1  Thirteenth  Census,  Vol.  V,  p.  489. 

2  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1915,  p.  397. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  DAIRYING 


213 


taken  place  in  butter  and  cheese  production,  the  amount  of 
miik  sold  to  be  consumed  as  milk  has  more  than  doubled 
(in  ?reased  about  121  per  cent).  .There  is  still  much  butter 
and  cheese  produced  in  New  York  and  other  eastern  states 
and  will  be  for  some  time  to  come.  The  amount  of  land 
thi't  is  good  for  pasture  but  not  good  for  crops  is  more  than 
enough  to  supply  all  the  milk  needed  in  the  cities.  The 


FIG.  73.  - —  Distribution  of  cheese  production  in  the  United  States. 
Most  of  the  cheese  is  produced  in  regions  that  are  cool,  and  that  have  good 
pastures  on  soils  well  supplied  with  lime.1 

remaining  land  is  used  for  the  production  of  cheese  and  but- 
ter. As  the  populations  of  the  cities  increase,  the  production 
of  both  of  these  will  decrease.  Some  butter  will  always 
be  made  because  the  milk  supply  cannot  be  just  right 
for  each  day's  demand.  The  excess  is  usually  made  into 
butter. 

188.  Other  Adjustment  due  to  Transportation.  Because 
of  differences  in  prices  of  feed  and  kinds  of  products  sold,  the 

1  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  231. 


214  DAIRY  FARMING 

methods  of  dairying  are  very  different  in  different  regions. 
Near  cities  the  cost  of  feed  is  so  high  and  the  value  of  the 
protein  in  milk  (skim-milk)  is  so  great  that  the  raising  of 
calves  is  very  expensive.  Many  farmers  who  are  thus  sit- 
uated regularly  buy  their  cows.  This  is  certain  to  continue 
to  be  the  general  practice.  This  provides  a  steady  market 
for  mature  cows  from  regions  where  feed  and  milk  are  both 
cheaper.  Such  men  can  raise  more  calves  than  they  need 
and  can  sell  some  of  them  as  cows. 

Because  of  the  expense  of  raising  cows  where  feed  is  high 
priced,  the  tendency  in  such  regions  is  to  keep  the  cows 
longer.  On  New  York  farms,  there  were  7  cows  for  each 
yearling  heifer  in  1910,  indicating  that  the  average  cow 
is  probably  kept  until  she  is  8  or  9  years  old.  In  Wisconsin 
there  was  one  yearling  heifer  for  each  4.7  cows.  In  Iowa 
there  was  one  heifer  for  each  3.6  cows.  In  these  states  the 
cows  are  kept  about  half  as  long  as  they  are  in  New  York. 

189.  Marginal  Regions.     There  are  of  course  many  regions 
where  the  conditions  are  about  equally  favorable  for  each 
class  of  dairy  products.     The  region  may  be  at  the  end  of 
the  milk-shipping  region  so  that  the  freight  charges  on  milk 
make  the  net  price  of  milk  about  the  same  as  that  of  butter. 
Such  regions  tend  to  prevent  the  price  of  milk  from  rising. 
If  it  rises  much,  farmers  stop  making  cheese  or  butter  and 
ship  the  milk ;  and  if  the  price  drops,  they  go  back  to  butter 
or  cheese  making. 

190.  Effect  of  Distance  to  Railroad.     Back  from  the  rail- 
roads on  which  milk  or  cream  is  shipped  there   are  some- 
times communities  or  farms  that  find  it  better  to  make 
butter  than  to  haul  milk  too  far.     In  many  of  the  milk-sell- 
ing regions  there  are  such  examples.     Sometimes  the  farmers 
get  calves  from  men  living  near  the  railroad,  take  them  to 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  DAIRYING 


215 


the  distant  farm  to  be  raised,  and  then  sell  the  cows  back 
to  1  he  dairymen  nearer  the  railroad.  It  is  often  more  profit- 
abl<  for  the  farmers  in  such  regions  to  cooperate  and  haul 
the  milk  to  the  railroad. 

191.    Soil  and  Climate  as  Determining  the  Kind  of  Prod- 
uct     There  are  no  important    dairy  regions  that  do  not 


Pe   Cen 
16 

t 

M 

/ 

/   I 

\ 

\J\ 

/ 

/     I 
f 

\\ 

IZ 

I 

/ 

^ 

^ 

10 

I 

1 
1 

V 

\ 

\ 

k- 

1 

\ 

A 

^   X, 

sN, 

X 

Milk 

6 

"•-..^ 

B.»* 

st 

^ 

*/ 

\ 

Vx 
N\ 

\ 

Butter 

~^*  ^^ 

/s 

• 

\ 

4 

/ 

/ 

\ 
\ 

2 

, 

/ 

•\ 

CKeese 

0. 

Aa       Feb.     Mar      Af>r.     M&y     June     July     Aug.    Sept.     Oct.      Nov.    Dec. 

Fco.  74.  —  Proportion  of  the  year's  product  made  in  each  month.  Record 
for  cheese  made  in  Wisconsin,  butter  received  in  Chicago,  and  milk  and 
cream  received  in  New  York.  Most  of  the  cheese  and  butter  is  made  in 
summer  and  stored  for  winter  use. 

have  good  pastures.  Cheese  production  appears  to  have  a 
further  limitation.  Nearly  all  the  cheese  is  produced  in 
cool  regions  that  have  a  limestone  soil  or  that  have  a  soil 
fairly  well  supplied  with  lime.  Butter  is  produced  on  all 
kinds  of  soils,  but  most  of  the  commercial  product  is  from 
regions  where  the  soil  and  climate  will  grow  good  pastures. 
192.  Kind  of  Product  and  Season  for  Production.  The 
demand  for  milk  in  the  cities  is  practically  constant.  Fifty- 
two  per  cent  of  the  total  milk  shipped  to  New  York  City  is 


216 


DAIRY  FARMING 


received  during  the  six  months  beginning  May  1.  But 
almost  two-thirds  (64  per  cent)  of  the  cream  is  used  during 
the  summer  months.1 

Because  pasture  is  so  much  cheaper  than  winter  feed,  the 
products  that  are  readily  stored,  such  as  condensed  milk, 


Butter  per  Ib.                                                                                             Milk  per  qt. 
42<                                                                                                       A->t 

40 



v 

..«•• 

..••*' 

40 

38. 

•. 

£; 

/ 

^38 

36. 

\ 

..• 

' 

3.6 

34 

\ 

y 

c* 

34 

32. 

\ 

>...« 

f** 

3.2 

30 

.3.0 

28 

.  2.8 

26 

N 

^ 

i 

' 

? 

2.6 

24 

<- 



v. 

^,  * 

f 

22 

^"^> 

^ 

_22 

Jm.    Feb.  Mar  Apr   May  June  July  Au$  Sept  Oct.  Nov.  Dec. 

FIG.  75.  —  Average  farm  prices  of  butter  and  of  market  milk  at  shipping 
stations  for  the  five  years  1910-1914.  In  order  to  secure  a  constant  supply 
of  milk  the  prices  in  the  different  months  have  to  be  in  proportion  to  the 
costs  of  production  in  each  month,  but  the  amount  of  stored  butter  prevents 
the  winter  price  of  butter  from  rising  as  high  as  it  otherwise  would. 

butter,  cheese,  and  milk  flour,  are  most  largely  produced  on 
grass.  About  75  per  cent  of  the  cheese  in  Wisconsin  is  pro- 
duced in  the  six  months  beginning  with  May.2  Over  three- 
fifths  (63  per  cent)  of  the  butter  received  in  Chicago  is 
received  during  these  six  months.3 

1  The  Milk  Reporter,  Feb.,  1915,  p.  16. 

a  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  231,  p.  21. 

3  Chicago  Dairy  Produce,  Jan.  16,  1915,  p.  5. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  DAIRYING 


217 


Of  course  some  butter  and  cheese  is  produced  in  all 
moiiths.  The  problem  is  whether  to  have  the  cows  freshen 
in  t lie  spring,  and  thereby  have  most  of  the  production  made 
on  }  >asture  ;  or  to  have  them  freshen  in  the  fall,  and  therefore 
hav<v  most  of  the  production  made  in-  winter.  It  is  perfectly 
clea  -  that  the  majority  of  farmers  find  that  the  summer  dairy 
pay  ^  best  for  cheese  and  butter.  Many  of  those  who  sell 
market  milk  have  the  cows  freshen  in  the  fall. 

TAB  LE  26.  —  FIVE-YEAR  AVERAGE  FARM  PRICES  OF  BUTTER  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES,  1910-1914 ;  AND  THREE-YEAR  AVERAGE 
PRICES  OP  MARKET  MILK  AT  SHIPPING  STATIONS,  1913-1915 


MILK  t 

BUTTER  2 

Cents  per 
Quart 

Per  Cent  of 
Dec.  Price 

Cents  per 
Pound 

Per  Cent  of 
Dec.  Price 

January 

4.13 

99 

28.4 

100 

February      .     . 

4.06 

97 

27.2 

96 

Mar:;h      .     .     . 

3.90 

93 

25.9 

92 

April  .... 

3.61 

86 

25.4 

90 

May    .... 

3.21 

77 

24.7 

87 

Juno    .... 

3.16 

75 

23.5 

83 

July     .... 

3.33 

79 

22.9 

81 

August     ... 

3.49 

83 

23.6 

'83 

September    .     . 

3.66 

87 

24.7 

87 

October         .     . 

3.98 

95 

25.8 

91 

November    .     . 

4.14 

99 

26.7 

94 

December 

4.19 

100 

28.3 

100 

The  average  farm  price  of  butter  in  the  United  States  by 
months  is  given  in  Table  26,  also  the  average  farm  price  of 
milk  that  is  shipped  to  the  leading  cities.  The  highest 
price  of  milk  is  reached  in  December.  The  June  price  is 

1  U.  S.  Dept.    Agr.,  Weekly  News  Letter  to  Crop  Correspondents,  Sept. 
24,  1913,  Jan.  20,  1915,  Apr.  28,  1915. 

2  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbooks. 


218  DAIRY  FARMING 

only  75  per  cent  of  the  December  price.  Butter  is  less 
variable  in  price.  The  butter  held  in  storage  prevents  the 
winter  price  from  rising  as  high  as  it  would  otherwise  go. 
Under  normal  conditions  this  stored  butter  prevents  the 
winter  price  from  rising  high  enough  to  cover  the  increased 
cost  of  feed  as  it  must  do  in  the  case  of  milk.  The  winter 
prices  of  butter  and  cheese  are  based  not  primarily  on  the 
cost  of  winter  feed,  but  on  the  cost  of  summer  feed  plus  the 
cost  of  storage. 

In  spite  of  this  difference  in  favor  of  production  of  butter 
on  pasture,  there  are  some  farms  that  can  produce  it  in  win- 
ter to  the  best  advantage.  Occasionally  a  farmer  sells  but- 
ter at  retail  at  such  a  high  winter  price  that  it  more  than 
covers  the  higher  feed  cost.  If  the  farmer  is  very  short  of 
pasture  and  has  an  abundance  of  cheap  winter  feed,  winter 
production  may  pay.  Sometimes  the  pressure  of  other  work 
in  the  summer  is  enough  to  more  than  offset  the  difference  in 
feed  cost.  Occasionally  a  farmer  has  such  profitable  summer 
work  and  so  much  of  it  that  he  cannot  afford  to  milk  cows 
in  the  summer,  but  may  be  able  to  milk  them  for  butter  pro- 
duction in  winter. 

193.  Animal  Unit  Defined.  In  order  to  compare  the 
amount  of  live-stock  on  different  farms,  it  is  necessary  to 
reduce  all  kinds  of  animals  to  some  common  basis.  One 
cow,  bull,  or  horse  is  called  an  animal  unit.  Two  head  of 
young  stock  are  counted  as  one  unit.  Seven  sheep,  fourteen 
lambs,  five  hogs,  ten  pigs,  one  hundred  hens,  are  each 
counted  as  one  animal  unit.  In  each  case  the  numbers  given 
represent  a  group  that  eats  approximately  as  much  food 
as  a  cow  or  horse,  and  produces  manure  worth  as  much  as 
that  produced  by  a  cow  or  horse.  Similarly,  the  number  of 
cattle  units  on  a  farm  are  the  approximate  equivalent  in 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  DAIRYING  219 

grovn  cattle.     To  find  the  number  of  cattle  units  add  half 
the  lumber  of  young  stock  to  the  number  of  cows  and  bulls. 

QUESTIONS    AND    PROBLEMS 

1  Is  your  region  more  or  less  favorable  for  cattle  production 
thai  the  average  of  the  country  ?     Consider  the  ease  with  which  per- 
man  >nt  pastures  are  maintained,  length  of  the  pasture  season, 
amo  mt  of  pasture  land  that  is  not  good  for  crop  growing,  amount 
of  g«  >od  forage  crops  grown,  cost  of  winter  feed,  and  total  cost  of 
feed  for  the  entire  year. 

2  Is  the  region  relatively  better  for  beef  or  for  dairy  cattle? 
Som .?  of  the  points  to  consider  are :  cost  of  feed,  coolness  of  the  cli- 
mati  ,  whether  the  pasture  grass  is  luxuriant  enough  to  maintain  a 
gooc  flow  of  milk,  and  the  market  for  dairy  products. 

3.  What  form  of  dairy  products  are  usually  most  profitable  in 
this  -egion?     Why? 

4.  From  the  railroad  agent  find  the  amounts  shipped  in  a  car- 
load of  cattle,  of  butter,  of  milk,  of  cream.    What  is  the  freight  on  a 
car-load  of  each  to  the  nearest  large  city  ?     Use  the  same  city  in  each 
case. 

5.  From  farmers,  find  about  how  many  pounds  of  feed  are  repre- 
sents d  in  a  car-load  of  each  of  the  above  products. 

6.  From  the  census  report  for  your  state,  fill  in  the  following  table  : 
Number  of  farms  in  the  state 

Number  of  dairy  cows 
Number  of  dairy  cows  per  farm 
Quantity  of  milk  produced 
Quantity  of  milk  produced  per  cow  * 
Pounds  of  butter  made  on  farms 
Pounds  of  butter  made  in  factories 

Total  pounds  of  butter 
Pounds  of  cheese  made  on  farms 
Pounds  of  cheese  made  in  factories 

Total  pounds  of  cheese 
Amount  of  milk  sold 
Amount  of  cream  sold 
Amount  of  butter-fat  sold 

1  Notice  that  this  is  too  low  because  some  heifers  that  are  too  young 
to  give  milk  are  included  with  cows. 


220  DAIRY  FARMING 

Total  value  of  all  dairy  products  sold 
Average  value  of  dairy  products  sold  per  farm 

7.  Compared  with  the  preceding  census,  which  of  the  following 
are  increasing  and  which  decreasing  :  number  of  cows  ;  butter  made 
on  farms  ;  butter  made  in  factories ;  cheese.     In  each  case  give  the 
reasons  for  the  change. 

8.  A  similar  study  may  be  made  for  the  county. 

9.  How  may  steers  and  bulls  born  before  1909,  and  born  in  1909, 
are  there  in  your  state  or  county  for  each  100  dairy  cows  ?     Compare 
with  Table  23,  page  207.     What  proportion  do  dairy  cows  represent 
of  all  cattle?     Compare  with  Table  22,  page  203. 

10.  How  many  beef  and  dairy  cows  were  there  in  your  state  or 
county?     How  many  heifers  born  in  1909?     How  many  cows  for 
each  heifer?     Compare  with  the  figures  on  page  214. 

11.  Are  the  calves  in  your  region  raised,  or  sold  for  veal?     If 
sold,  at  what  age? 

12.  Does  your  region  produce  all  its  dairy  cows?     Does  it  pro- 
duce any  to  be  shipped  to  other  regions  ? 

13.  About  what  proportion  of  the  cows  in  the  dairy  herds  of 
your  region  are  replaced  each  year? 

14.  At  what  time  of  the  year  is  most  of  the  milk,  butter,  or  cheese 
of  your  region  produced  ?     Why  ? 

COLLATERAL   READING 
Farm  Management,  G.  F.  Warren,  pp.  43-103,  276-278. 


CHAPTER   10 

SYSTEMS    OF   FARMING    ON    DAIRY   FARMS 
G.  F.  WARREN 

D  URY  farms  may  be  classified  according  to  the  cropping 
syst<  m  that  they  use,  also  according  to  whether  they  raise 
or  buy  their  feed,  and  may  be  compared  in  many  other 
way:-.  A  few  of  these  problems  of  organization  are  here 
discussed. 

CROPS  FOR  FEED 

194.  Corn  Silage.  The  most  striking  change  in  the  dairy 
industry  in  the  last  century  has  come  in  connection  with  the 
use  of  the  silo.  This  provides  a  succulent  feed  in  the  winter 
and  makes  it  possible  to  obtain  a  better  production  of  milk 
at  that  time  of  year.  The  silo  is  a  means  of  saving  corn- 
stalks in  the  best  possible  form  for  winter  use.  It  does  not 
increase  the  value  of  the  grain.  In  fact,  there  is  always  some 
loss  in  the  silo,  and  the  cost  of  putting  corn  into  the  silo  is 
more  than  the  cost  of  husking  from  standing  stalks.  Aside 
from  its  value  as  a  succulent  feed,  it  is  primarily  a  substitu- 
tion of  corn-stalks  for  hay.  In  regions  where  the  season  is 
too  short  for  maturing  corn,  it  may  still  be  grown  for  the 
silo.  In  arid  regions  corn  and  other  crops  that  would  not 
produce  much  grain  are  nevertheless  of  value  for  silage. 

Few  crops  except  corn  and  similar  plants  are  used  gener- 
ally for  the  silo.  Crops  that  make  good  hay  are  best  stored 

221 


222  DAIRY  FARMING 

as  hay,  because  hay  can  be  handled  more  cheaply  and  be- 
cause the  hay  crops  pack  so  loosely  in  the  silo  that  the 
losses  are  considerable. 

The  higher  the  price  of  hay,  the  more  important  a  silo 
becomes.  The  more  general  use  of  silos  in  the  East  is  pri- 
marily due  to  the  high  price  of  hay.  The  average  farm 
price  of  hay  in  New  York  is  86  per  cent  above  that  in  Ne- 
braska, but  in  every  region  the  price  is  rising  so  that  interest 
in  silos  is  general. 

Next  to  the  price  of  hay  the  number  of  cattle  is  the  pri- 
mary consideration  in  building  a  silo.  A  silo  that  holds 
much  less  than  75  to  100  tons  is  expensive  for  its  capacity. 
But  such  a  silo  will  furnish  feed  for  20  to  30  cattle  during 
the  winter  months.  It  is  usually  not  profitable  to  have  a 
silo  for  less  than  10  cattle.  If  one  has  over  20  cattle  in  a 
region  where  corn  grows  well,  a  silo  is  usually  profitable. 
Between  these  limits  the  price  of  hay,  the  amount  of  money 
available,  the  machinery  that  must  be  purchased,  and 
whether  winter  or  summer  dairying  is  followed,  will  deter- 
mine whether  or  not  a  silo  will  be  profitable.  In  Livingston 
County,  New  York,  only  7  per  cent  of  the  farmers  who  had 
fewer  than  15  cattle  units  had  silos,  but  83  per  cent  of  those 
who  had  25  or  more  cattle  units  had  silos. 

Silage  costs  more  than  the  estimates  often  given.  In 
the  Eastern  States  it  usually  costs  about  $4  to  $5  per  ton. 
It  is  often  considered  to  be  worth  one-third  as  much  as  hay. 

In  the  corn-belt  a  ton  of  silage  often  contains  about  five 
bushels  of  corn.  To  compare  the  cost  of  silage  with  the  value 
of  corn  husked  from  the  standing  stalks,  we  must  add  to 
the  value  of  the  corn  grain  the  extra  cost  of  putting  it  in  the 
silo,  and  interest  on  the  money  invested  in  the  silo,  and  an- 
nual depreciation  of  the  silo.  These  extra  costs  often  amount 


SYSTEMS  OF  FARMING   ON  DAIRY  FARMS  223 

to  SI  per  ton.     On  this  basis  silage  usually  costs  $3  to  $4 
per  ton. 

195.  Soiling  Crops.     Sometimes  dairy  cattle  are  kept  in 
the  barn,  and  green  feed  is  brought  to  them*  rat  her  than 
pro  dde  pasture  for  them.     This  system  is  practiced  in  some 
pla<  es  in  Europe  and  occasionally  in  America.     The  system 
will   keep  more  cows  on  a  given  area  of  land,  and  it  is 
therefore  frequently  advocated  by  persons  who  do  not  un- 
deivtand  American  farming.     When  land  is  very  high  in 
price,  or  labor  very  cheap,  it  is  a  good  system.     On  the  edge 
of  <  ities  it  sometimes  pays  because  land  for  pasture  would 
be  1  oo  expensive.     The  high  price  received  for  the  milk  may 
make  it  possible  to  follow  this  expensive  method  and  yet 
make  a  profit.     The  large  amount  of  labor  involved  is  shown 
by  results  at  the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station.     The 
equivalent  of  50  cows  was  kept  for  6  months   on   various 
soiling  crops.     During  that  time  278  tons  of  green  crops 
were  hauled  to  the  barn.     The  cost  of  the  labor  to  haul  these 
crops  to  the  barn,  to  say  nothing  of  the  cost  of  growing 
them,  would  be  more  than  the  entire  cost  of  pasture  in 
many  dairy  regions.     It  often  pays  to  cut  some  corn-stalks 
or  to  give  some  other  feed  at  times  when  the  pasture  is  short, 
as  discussed  on  page  128,  but  this  is  very  different  from  fol- 
lowing a   soiling  system.     Such  feeding  is  supplementing 
pasture,  not  trying  to  do  without  it.     Even  when  land  be- 
comes high  in  price  and  labor  cheap,  it  is  not  probable  that 
a  soiling  system  will  be  generally  used  in  America,  because 
corn  silage  is  cheaper  and  is  as  good.     Any  system  of  barn 
feeding  during  the  pasture  season  means  that  milk  is  being 
produced  on  the  winter  basis  of  cost,  whereas  the  product 
must  be  sold  at  the  summer  price,  which  is  much  lower. 

196.  Roots.     Mangels,  sugar  beets,  or  other  root  crops 


224  DAIRY  FARMING 

are  much  grown  for  stock  food  in  Europe,  but  in  regions 
where  corn  silage  can  be  grown,  such  crops  are  not  likely  to 
be  raised  extensively,  because  corn  silage  is  nearly  as  good 
and  is  cheaper.  The  cool  moist  climate  of  Europe  and  the 
cheap  labor  are  favorable  for  growing  roots.  Our  climate 
is  better  adapted  to  corn,  and  our  labor  is  so  costly  that 
root  crops  are  expensive  feed.  The  farmer  who  keeps  too 
small  a  herd  to  justify  him  in  having  a  silo,  sometimes  finds 
that  it  pays  to  raise  root  crops  to  give  a  succulent  feed  in 
winter.  Roots  are  a  very  expensive  feed,  but  a  few  pounds 
a  day  will  often  increase  the  milk  yield  enough  to  pay.  Per- 
sons who  make  advanced  registry  tests  usually  raise  mangels 
or  beets  to  feed  to  the  cows  while  on  test.  Root  crops  also 
have  a  place  in  regions  where  the  season  is  so  short  that 
corn  silage  cannot  be  raised. 

197.  Legumes.     The  importance  of  raising  alfalfa,  clover, 
or  some  other  legume  has  already  been  emphasized.     Many 
farms  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  are  better 
adapted  to  clover  than  to  alfalfa,  but  where  alfalfa  grows 
without  too  much  difficulty  it  is  preferred.     Cowpeas   are 
the  most  common  legume  in  the  South.     Soybeans,  vetch, 
and  many  other  legumes  are  grown  by  some  farmers,  but  in 
most  parts  of  the  North,  alfalfa  or  clover  is  more  profitable. 

198.  Pasture.     The  common  pasture  plants  in  the  north- 
eastern quarter  of  the  United  States  are  Kentucky  blue-grass 
and  white  clover.     On  land  that  is  deficient  in  lime,  Canada 
blue-grass  or  redtop  is  often  the  chief  pasture  plant.     Blue- 
grass  requires  several  years  to  form  a  good  sod.     If  the  pas- 
ture land  is  well  supplied  with  lime  and  is  fairly  fertile,  the 
pasture  usually  requires  little  attention,  but  if  it  is  not 
fertile,  more  care  is  necessary.     In  the  South  the  common 
pasture  plant  is  Bermuda  grass. 


SYSTEMS  OF  FARMING   ON  DAIRY  FARMS  225 

199.  Home-grown  Grain.     In  the  corn-belt  it  nearly  always 
to  raise  more  corn  than  the  cattle  eat.     Since  there  is 

an  ibundance  of  corn,  it  should  be  fed  as  liberally  as  possible 
am  yet  have  a  good  ration.  In  the  Eastern  States  and 
nor:h  of  the  corn-belt  farm-grown  oats  are  often  ground  for 
cov  feed.  Oats  are  nearly  always  too  high  in  price  to  be  a 
proitable  feed  to  buy,  but  the  costs  of  marketing  the  oats 
am  hauling  other  feeds  to  take  their  place  are  often  enough 
to  ]  aake  it  pay  to  feed  the  oats  that  one  has. 

CROPPING  SYSTEMS  ON  DAIRY  FARMS 

200.  Principles  of  a  Good  Cropping  System.     The  great 
majority  of  the  dairy  cows  are  in  the  northeastern  quarter 
of  ihe  United  States  (see  Fig.  68),  east  of  central  Nebraska 
am;    north   of  Washington,  B.C.     Most  of  this  region  is 
adapted   to   timothy,   blue-grass,   and    clover.     Permanent 
pastures  of  blue-grass  and  white  clover  are  common.     The 
usual  cropping  system  is  : 

Corn  or  other  tilled  crops  on  sod  land  for  one  or  more 
years. 

Small  grain  for  one  or  two  years  with  timothy  and  clover 
seeded  in  the  last  year. 

Hay  for  one  or  more  years,  or  hay  followed  by  pasture. 

This  is  an  ideal  cropping  system  for  the  dairy  farm.  The 
three  different  classes  of  crops  supplement  each  other  in  the 
control  of  weeds.  The  corn  furnishes  silage  or  grain  or  both. 
The  small  grain  gives  its  best  yield  and  at  least  cost  when 
grown  after  a  tilled  crop.  The  grasses  and  clover  are  started 
by  seeding  in  the  small  grain  at  very  low  cost.  If  the  land 
is  adapted  to  clover,  this  helps  to  supply  the  protein  that 
is  not  provided  in  sufficient  quantity  by  the  other  feeds  grown 
in  the  rotation. 
Q 


226  DAIRY  FARMING 

Everywhere  a  good  rotation  for  a  dairy  farm  should  if 
possible  provide  clover,  alfalfa,  or  some  other  legume  for 
hay  and  should  provide  an  abundance  of  roughage  and  pas- 
ture. It  should  if  possible  provide  a  cash  crop,  or  a  feeding 
crop  for  some  other  class  of  animals,  such  as  corn  for  hog 
feed. 

201.  Examples  of  Rotations.  There  are  many  variations 
of  this  rotation  plan  that  follow  the  general  principles  given 


FIG.  76.  —  A  good  basis  for  profitable  dairying ;  high-grade  cows  on  a 
good  blue-grass  pasture ;  corn  for  the  silo  in  the  background ;  clover  in  an 
adjoining  field ;  timothy  and  oats  also  raised. 

above.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  region  described  above, 
from  southern  Pennsylvania  to  Kansas,  a  common  rotation 
is  corn,  winter  wheat,  clover. 

A  little  farther  north,  corn  is  removed  too  late  for  the 
planting  of  wheat,  therefore  oats  are  grown  following  corn. 
In  the  Northeastern  States,  corn,  potatoes,  cabbage,  and  other 
tilled  crops  are  usually  followed  by  oats  in  which  grass  is 
seeded.  The  hay  is  usually  left  for  about  three  years.  In 
this  region  hay  does  well  and  is  high  in  price. 


SYSTEMS  OF  FARMING   ON  DAIRY  FARMS  227 

I  Q  the  best  part  of  the  corn-belt,  corn  is  raised  for  several 
years  in  succession  because  this  is  the  most  important  crop. 
A  j.;ood  rotation  for  much  of  this  region  is  corn  two  years, 
followed  by  one  year  of  oats  in  which  clover  and  timothy 
are  seeded.  This  may  be  cut  for  one  or  two  years,  or  if  there 
is  i  ot  a  permanent  blue-grass  pasture,  it  may  be  cut  for  hay 
om  year  and  pastured  one  year. 

1  n  regions  where  alfalfa  is  grown,  systems  of  cropping  are 
not  so  definitely  established.  Perhaps  the  ideal  dairy  region 
is  c  ne  that  is  naturally  adapted  to  corn  and  alfalfa  and  that 
ha^  permanent  pastures  of  blue-grass  and  white  clover. 

1  n  the  South,  a  good  rotation  is  cotton  one  or  two  years, 
foil  3wed  by  corn.  The  corn  is  followed  by  one  year  of  oats 
anc  cowpeas,  the  oat  crop  being  harvested  in  time  to  raise 
a  c  -op  of  cowpeas  the  same  year.  Cowpeas  or  some  other 
croi3  is  sometimes  planted  between  the  rows  of  corn.  This 
system,  together  with  Bermuda  grass  pastures,  provides 
legumes,  corn,  pasture,  and  a  cash  crop.  The  legume  and 
pasture  are,  however,  more  expensive  to  raise  than  are 
the  grasses  of  the  North.  There  is  room  for  a  great  develop- 
ment of  dairying  in  the  South,  but  the  greatest  dairy  centers 
will  remain  in  the  regions  where  grass  grows  more  readily. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  great  variety  of  cropping  sys- 
tems followed  on  different  dairy  farms. 

CASH  CROPS  AND  FEED  RAISED 

202.  Feed  and  Cash  Crops.  There  are  many  ways  in 
which  the  type  of  farming  on  dairy  farms  may  be  described. 
Some  of  the  most  important  comparisons  are  based  on  the 
extent  to  which  feed  is  purchased  and  the  amount  of  other 
products  sold.  The  following  are  some  of  the  different 
methods : 


228  DAIRY  FARMING 

1.  All  feed  bought,  no  crops  raised,  nothing  but  milk  and 
discarded  cows  sold. 

2.  Nothing  but  roughage  raised. 

3.  Roughage  and  all  or  part  of  the  grain  raised. 

4.  Same  as  2,  but  with  some  cash  crop  or  other  product 
sold. 

5.  Same  as  3,  with  some  cash  crop  or  other  product  sold. 

6.  With  any  of  the  above  methods,  the  cows  may  be  raised 
or  may  be  purchased. 

7.  The  cows  may  be  pure-bred  so  that  there  is  a  consid- 
erable income  from  the  sale  of  stock. 

In  general,  each  of  the  above  types  is  more  profitable  than 
the  preceding,  provided  the  conditions  are  favorable  for  it. 

203.  All  Feed  Purchased.     Some  dairy  cows  are  kept  in 
cities.     Most  of  these  are  kept  to  supply  milk  for  home  use, 
but  some  large  dairies  are  maintained  where  all  feed  must  be 
purchased.     Usually  the  cows  are  fed  largely  on  factory  by- 
products that  are  not  readily  shipped.     But  sometimes  or- 
dinary feeds  are  purchased.     The  high  price  received  for 
the  milk  sometimes  makes  such  an  enterprise  profitable. 
Calves  are  very  rarely  raised  in  cities,  because  feed  is  too 
expensive.     Ordinarily  it  is  cheaper  to  produce  the  milk  in 
the  country  where  pastures  are  available.     It  costs  less  to 
ship  milk  than  it  does  to  ship  the  hay  and  other  feed  required 
to  make  it. 

204.  Nothing    but    Roughage    Raised.      This    system    is 
very  common  in  the  hilly  and  mountainous  parts  of  the 
Eastern  States.     A  better  system  is  not  easy  to  devise  for 
some  regions  where  the  land  is  not  adapted  to  any  crop  ex- 
cept hay  and  pasture  and  where  the  fields  are  all  so  small 
and  rough  as  to  prevent  the  profitable  growth  of  other  crops. 

Because  of  the  small  amount  of  field  work,  it  is  not  often 


SYSTEMS  OF  FARMING   ON  DAIRY  FARMS  229 

profitable  tp  employ  much  hired  help.  The  farmer  with 
the  help  of  one  member  of  the  family  at  chore  time  can  milk 
20  >r  25  cows  and,  therefore,  under  this  system,  the  women 
oft"n  help  with  the  milking.  The  farmer  can  do  the  re- 
ma  nder  of  the  day's  work  alone.  In  haying  time  he  may 
nee  d  a  little  extra  help.  Such  farmers  usually  find  that  it 
pa;  s  best  to  have  the  cows  freshen  in  the  spring  so  as  to  pro- 
du<  e  most  of  the  milk  in  summer  and  thus  reduce  the  grain 
bill.  One  of  the  important  reasons  for  winter  dairying  is 
to  lave  the  summer  free  for  field  work,  but  on  farms  where 
litt  e  field  work  is  done  this  is  no  advantage. 

1  fnder  these  conditions  the  milk  production  per  cow  is  the 
most  important  problem  because  profits  depend  almost  en- 
tin  ly  on  the  cow.  It  is  sometimes  possible  to  find  some  other 
prc  duct  besides  milk  that  can  be  raised  without  much  extra 
cost.  Berries,  eggs,  honey,  or  hay  will  often  add  much  to 
the  income.  Sometimes  pure-bred  stock  is  kept  and  a  good 
profit  made  from  the  sale  of  the  surplus  animals. 

205.  Roughage   and   Grain  Raised.     Where  the  land  is 
good  enough  to  raise  grain,  this  system  pays  much  better 
than  the  preceding  one  because  the  grain  feed  can  be  raised 
wit  hout  having  to  hire  much  extra  labor,  and  with  practically 
the    same   number   of   horses  that  must  be  kept  anyway. 
(See  Farm  Records  on  page  281.) 

206.  Roughage    and    Cash    Crops   Raised.      One   of  the 
most  profitable  types  of  dairy  farming  is  the  combination  of 
intensive  cash   crops   with  a  dairy.     The   manure   is   used 
to   grow  potatoes,    cabbages,    apples,   tobacco,  hops,  peas, 
or  sweet  corn  for  canning  factories,  or  some  other  crop  for 
sale.     Where  the  soil  and  markets  are  favorable  for  one  or 
two  of  these  crops,  this  system  usually  pays  much  better 
than  trying  to  raise  the  grain  feed.     It  is,  of  course,  much 


230  DAIRY  FARMING 

better  to  raise  the  grain  feed  than  nothing.  But  if  instead 
of  raising  the  grain,  one  can  raise  cash  crops  that  will  pay 
the  feed  bill  several  times  over,  he  should  certainly  choose 
the  latter  course.  Hay  is  another  good  cash  crop  for  dairy 
farms  near  large  cities.  Most  of  the  highly  successful  dairy 
farms  in  New  York  and  New  England  sell  some  crops,  as  do 
many  of  the  farms  in  other  sections.  Some  of  these  farms 
also  raise  all  their  grain  feed,  but  most  of  them  buy  a  consider- 
able part  of  it.  (See  Farm  Records  on  pages  242  and  285.) 

Farther  from  the  cities  the  cash  crops  are  more  likely  to 
be  grain  or  grain  marketed  through  hogs.  This  is  the  most 
commonly  profitable  type  of  dairy  farming  in  the  corn-belt. 
It  is  certain  to  increase  greatly  in  that  region.  All  of  the 
roughage  and  most  of  the  grain  is  raised  for,  all  of  the  farm 
stock.  A  little  cottonseed  meal,  or  other  nitrogenous  feed, 
is  purchased  to  balance  the  ration.  Much  more  corn  is 
raised  than  can  be  fed  to  the  cows.  This  is  sold  or  is  fed  to 
hogs.  If  skim-milk  is  available  for  hog  feed,  the  conditions 
are  particularly  favorable  for  hog  production.  (See  Farm 
Records,  page  281.) 

MANAGEMENT  OF  MANURE 

The  success  of  the  dairy  farm  is  in  no  small  measure  de- 
pendent on  the  use  that  is  made  of  the  important  by-product, 
manure. 

207.  Amount  of  Manure  Produced.  Under  the  direction 
of  the  writer,  R.  E.  Deuel  determined  the  amount  of  manure 
produced  by  a  herd  of  46  cows  of  different  breeds  and  ages, 
averaging  1008  pounds  in  weight.  He  found  that  excrement 
was  produced  at  the  rate  of  13f  tons  per  year.  Some  years 
ago  Roberts  found  the  amount  to  be  13.5  tons  per  1000- 
pound  animal.  In  each  case  a  little  over  one  ton  of  bedding 


SYSTEMS  OF  FARMING   ON  DAIRY  FARMS  231 

was  used,  so  that  if  the  cows  were  kept  in  the  barn  all  the 
time  and  if  no  manure  were  lost,  there  would  have  been 
nearly  15  tons  of  manure  per  1000-pound  cow. 

INluch  of  the  year  the  cows  are  either  at  pasture  or  in  the 
ban  yard  so  that  part  of  the  manure  is  lost.  About  a  ton 
of  n  anure  per  cow  per  month  is  ordinarily  available  when 
cow^  are  kept  in  the  barn  and  turned  out  in  the  barnyard  for 
a  pn  rt  of  the  day.  In  the  Northern  States  8  to  10  tons  of 
man  are  a  year,  including  bedding,  are  usually  available  for 
eacl  cow  or  animal  unit  kept. 

208.  Fertility  of  Feed  Returned  by  Cows.  The  propor- 
tions of  the  constituents  of  the  feed  that  are  returned  in  the 
excroment  are  somewhat  variable.  A  fat  animal  that  is 
not  working  or  giving  milk  returns  a  very  large  proportion 
of  the  food  materials.  A  good  dairy  cow  from  the  very 
fact  that  she  is  an  efficient  machine  returns  a  small  propor- 
tion. 

TABI  E  27.  —  PROPORTION  OF  CONSTITUENTS  OF  FOOD  THAT  ARE 
RETURNED  IN  THE  EXCREMENT  OF  DAIRY  Cows 


DEUEL 

WOLFF  1 

Dry  matter 

Per  Cent 

45.5 

Per  Cent 

438 

Organic  matter 

43  3 

39  5 

Nitrogen     
Ash 

44.3 
63  6 

47.5 
53  9 

R.  E.  Deuel  determined  the  average  results  for  a  herd  of 
46  dairy  cows.  These  results  as  well  as  the  results  by  Wolff 
are  given  in  Table  27.  Dairy  cows  return  somewhat  over 
40  per  cent  of  the  organic  matter  and  nitrogen  of  the  food 
eaten,  and  more  than  half  of  the  mineral  matter.  Dry 

1  C.  M.  Aikman,  Manures  and  Manuring,  pp.  227,  281. 


232  DAIRY  FARMING 

cows,  or  cows  that  are  giving  little  milk,  often  return  a  half 
more  than  these  amounts. 

If  one  wishes  organic  matter  to  plow  under  to  make  humus, 
he  can  feed  cows  and  still  have  40  per  cent  of  the  humus- 
making  material  left.  For  this  reason,  it  is  usually  more 
profitable  to  feed  stock  than  to  plow  under  green-manure 
crops. 

If  one  desires  nitrogen  as  a  fertilizer,  he  can  feed  cows, 
and  still  get  back  nearly  half  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  feed.  If 
he  needs  phosphorus  and  potassium,  he  can  feed  cows,  and 
get  back  over  half  of  these  materials  that  are  in  the  feed. 
In  addition  to  the  above  all  of  the  bedding  may  be  recovered. 
Some  of  the  manure  may  be  lost,  but  for  the  time  cows  are 
in  the  barn,  if  the  manure  is  reasonably  well  cared  for/ 
it  is  safe  to  estimate  that  over  a  third  of  the  fertilizing  value 
of  the  feeds  will  actually  be  applied  to  the  land. 

209.  Losses  of  Manure  and  their  Prevention.  On  many 
farms  the  manure  is  allowed  to  lie  around  in  the  barnyard 
until  a  very  large  part  of  it  is  lost.  Exposure  for  five  months 
resulted  in  a  loss  of  over  half  of  the  value  of  the  manure.1 
One  of  the  important  reasons  for  keeping  cattle  is  to  obtain 
manure,  but  there  is  no  object  in  this  if  the  manure  is  wasted. 
If  manure  is  kept  moist  enough  so  that  it  will  not  heat,  and 
yet  if  neither  the  liquid  in  it  nor  rain  water  that  falls  on  it, 
is  allowed  to  escape,  it  will  keep  with  practically  no  loss. 

The  safest  place  for  manure  is  on  the  land.  On  some  farms 
it  is  possible  to  haul  it  every  day.  This  is  the  best  possible 
way  to  save  it.  When  this  practice  is  followed,  it  is  con- 
venient to  have  the  barn  so  arranged  that  one  can  drive 
through  between  two  rows  of  cows  that  have  their  heads 
toward  the  wall.  In  regions  where  little  is  done  except  to 

1  Elements  of  Agriculture,  G.  F.  Warren,  p.  141. 


SYSTEMS  OF  FARMING   ON  DAIRY  FARMS  233 

care  for  the  cows  and  raise  feed  for  them,  the  practice  of 
daily  hauling  is  often  best. 

If  many  acres  of  crops  are  grown  for  sale  or  for  use  in 
feed!  ig  other  animals,  the  field  work  is  so  important  that 
durii  g  much  of  the  year  one  cannot  afford  to  take  the  time 
to  hi  ul  manure  every  day.  There  are  then  three  ways  of 
keepi  tig  the  manure.  It  may  be  left  in  piles  until  it  can  be 
haulc  d,  it  may  be  kept  in  covered  barnyards,  or  may  be 
kept  n  a  manure  shed. 

A  :heap  shed  with  a  concrete  floor  will  keep  off  the  rain 
and  prevent  the  liquids  from  leaching  away.  A  convenient 
way  of  using  such  a  shed  is  to  have  the  barn  equipped  with 
a  ma  Hire  carrier  so  that  the  manure  from  the  cows,  horses, 
and  c  ther  animals,  can  be  put  in  the  shed.  The  floor  of  the 
shed  should  be  two  to  four  feet  below  the  floor  of  the  barn 
to  in<  Tease  its  capacity.  The  writer  has  found  that  a  shed 
25  feet  square  will  ordinarily  hold  the  manure  from  about 
20  animal  units  until  the  time  when  it  can  be  hauled.  The 
floor  need  not  be  expensive.  Three  inches  of  concrete  on 
solid  ground  will  answer  all  purposes. 

A  better  plan  is  to  have  the  shed  large  so  that  cattle,  hogs, 
or  other  stock,  can  run  in  it.  This  keeps  the  manure  solid 
and  makes  a  good  covered  shed.  With  either  of  the  above 
plans,  it  is  convenient  to  have  the  barn  so  arranged  that  the 
cows'  heads  are  together.  This  saves  time  in  feeding,  and 
the  barn  can  be  cleaned  with  a  manure  carrier  as  quickly  as 
if  the  cows  faced  the  wall. 

The  majority  of  farmers  throw  the  manure  in  piles  in  the 
barnyard.  The  rains  then  wash  away  much  of  the  best 
part  of  it.  Even  with  this  method,  considerable  saving  can 
be  made  by  having  the  eave  troughs  and  yard  drainage  so 
arranged  that  a  minimum  amount  of  water  will  run  through 


234  DAIRY  FARMING 

the  manure.  In  arid  regions  even  this  precaution  is  not 
always  necessary  because  there  may  be  only  enough  rain  to 
keep  the  manure  wet  without  washing  it  away.  With  this 
method  of  handling,  it  should  be  hauled  away  frequently. 
If  possible,  all  of  it  should  be  hauled  out  in  the  winter  and 
spring  so  that  as  little  as  possible  will  be  lost  by  summer 
rains.  In  August  usually  it  can  be  cleaned  up  again.  Bet- 
ter care  of  manure  by  using  the  covered  shed  method,  or  by 
some  other  method,  is  well  worth  consideration. 

210.  Value  of  Manure.  Manure  is  sometimes  valued 
according  to  its  chemical  analysis.  If  purchased  in  com- 
mercial fertilizers,  the  amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus, 
potassium,  and  calcium  in  a  ton  of  manure  would  cost  over 
$2.  But  what  manure  is  worth  to  a  farmer  depends  not 
on  its  chemical  analysis  but  on  what  he  is  going  to  do  with 
it.  If  it  is  to  be  left  in  the  barnyard,  it  has  no  value.  If 
used  on  some  crops,  it  may  have  a  very  high  value.  'On 
other  crops  its  value  is  less.  If  applied  in  very  large  quan- 
tities, its  value  per  ton  is  less  than  when  used  in  moderate 
amounts. 

The  good  returns  that  often  come  from  combining  dairying 
with  such  intensive  crops  as  potatoes,  cabbages,  hops,  to- 
bacco, apples,  and  grapes  are  due  partly  to  the  high  value  of 
manure  for  growing  such  crops.  It  is  just  as  easy  by  use  of 
manure  to  increase  the  potato  crop  ten  per  cent  as  it  is  to 
increase  a  grain  crop  by  the  same  proportion.  But  the  po- 
tato crop  has  so  much  greater  value  per  acre  that  the  returns 
from  such  an  increase  are  much  more.  Manure  has  a  high 
value  for  growing  corn  and  is  chiefly  used  on  that  crop  in 
regions  where  more  intensive  crops  are  not  raised. 

For  raising  corn,  small  grain,  and  hay,  manure  is  often 
credited  to  the  cows  at  about  $1  to  $1.50  per  ton  at  the  barn, 


SYSTEMS  OF  FARMING   ON  DAIRY  FARMS  235 

The  cost  of  hauling  is  usually  about  50  cents  so  that  these 
figures  would  make  the  manure  cost  the  crops  $1.50  to  $2 
per  1on.  For  some  new  regions  these  figures  may  be  high, 
but  i  n  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  manure  is  always 
wort  i  at  least  $1  per  ton  at  the  barn.  Where  truck  crops  or 
other  very  intensive  crops  are  raised,  it  may  be  worth  much 
mor< . 

211.  The  Value  of  Manure  Depends  on  the  Rate  of  Appli- 
cation. The  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station  has  con- 
duct od  an  extensive  series  of  fertilizer  and  manure  experi- 
meni  s  since  1882.  A  four-year  rotation  of  corn,  oats,  wheat, 
hay  s  followed.  On  one  plot  6  tons  of  manure  is  applied 
on  the  corn  and  on  the  wheat.  On  another  plot  10  tons  is 
used  The  check  plots  receive  no  treatment.  The  total 
value  -s  of  the  crops  per  acre  for  32  years  were  as  follows  :  l 

No  treatment $474 

Hx  tons  manure  every  other  year  (96  tons)    ...       714 
Ten  tons  manure  every  other  year  (160  tons)      .     .       747 

When  a  total  of  96  tons  of  manure  was  applied,  the  value  of 
the  increased  crops  amounted  to  $2.50  per  ton  of  manure. 
An  additional  application  of  64  more  tons  gave  increased 
crops  worth  51  cents  for  each  additional  ton.  For  the 
entire  period  of  32  years  this  extra  manure  would  have 
been  worth  nearly  five  times  as  much  per  ton  if  applied 
at  the  lesser  rate.  If  one  kept  30  animal  units  and  ob- 
tained 6  tons  of  manure  from  each  one,  or  180  tons  per 
year,  he  would  have  5760  tons  of  manure  in  32  years.  If 
this  manure  were  applied  at  the  lesser  rate,  the  total  value 
of  the  increased  crops  would  be  $14,400.  If  applied  at  the 
heavier  rate,  the  same  manure  would  have  brought  increased 

1  Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  90.  Later  data 
furnished  by  F.  D.  Gardner. 


236  DAIRY  FARMING 

crops  worth  only  $9,828.  The  manure  would  have  been 
worth  $4,572  more  to  the  farmer  if  spread  thinner. 

The  land  that  received  the  heavier  application  is  better 
for  future  crops  but  by  no  means  is  it  better  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  cost  of  the  heavier  application.  The  best 
measure  of  how  much  better  it  is,  is  found  in  the  results  of 
the  last  few  years.  As  an  average  for  the  last  four  years, 
the  plots  that  had  received  64  more  tons  of  manure  per  acre 
gave  crops  worth  only  $8.63  more  than  the  crops  on  the  plots 
using  the  lighter  application.  This  difference  is  not  enough 
to  give  any  promise  of  catching  up. 

The  same  principle  is  shown  by  results  at  the  Ohio  Ex- 
periment Station.  Many  different  experiments  have  been 
conducted  for  many  years.  In  every  case  a  given  quantity 
of  manure  has  given  the  greatest  returns  when  spread  thinly. 
One  test  in  a  three-year  rotation  of  potatoes,  wheat,  clover, 
has  been  continued  for  21  years.  Manure  was  applied 
at  the  rate  of  4,  8,  and  16  tons  on  wheat.  The  total  values 
of  the  crops  per  acre  were  as  follows : 1 

No  treatment $782.49 

4  tons  manure  every  three  years  (28  tons)  .  .  900.04 

8  tons  manure  every  three  years  (56  tons)  .  .  963.17 

16  tons  manure  every  three  years  (112  tons) .     .  1099.31 

When  a  total  of  28  tons  of  manure  was  applied,  the  in- 
creased crops  were  worth  $4.20  per  ton  of  manure.  An  ad- 
ditional application  of  28  more  tons  of  manure  per  acre 
gave  additional  crops  worth  $63.13,  or  $2.25  per  ton  for  the 
additional  manure.  A  still  further  addition  of  56  more  tons 
gave  crops  worth  $2.43  per  ton  for  the  last  additional  manure. 

Of  course  the  land  that  has  received  the  heavier  appli- 

1  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Circular  144.  Data  for  1914 
supplied  by  C.  G.  Williams. 


SYSTEMS  OF  FARMING   ON  DAIRY  FARMS  237 

cation  is  in  better  condition,  but  this  is  not  enough  to  make 
up  f  )r  the  past  difference  in  returns.  Even  with  the  fer- 
tility left  from  all  the  previous  years  of  treatment  the  plots 
that  had  the  heaviest  applications  were  still  paying  least  per 
ton  »f  manure  on  the  twenty-first  year. 

01  course  if  there  is  enough  manure,  the  heavier  applica- 
tion is  very  desirable,  but  with  a  limited  amount  it  is  better 
to  sj  read  it  thinly.  These  figures  also  indicate  the  high  value 
that  one  can  assign  to  manure  if  he  is  keeping  a  small  amount 
of  stock. 

If  a  farmer  had  180  tons  of  manure  a  year  to  apply  for  21 
yean  under  conditions  like  those  in  the  Ohio  experiment, 
the  manure  would  produce  increased  crops  worth  $15,869, 
if  applied  at  the  rate  of  4  tons  every  three  years,  but  would 
give  increased  crops  worth  only  $10,693  if  applied  at  the  rate 
of  16  tons  every  three  years.  If  the  manure  is  not  wasted, 
this  amount  is  usually  available  on  a  farm  that  keeps  15  cows 
in  addition  to  the  usual  amount  of  young  stock,  horses,  etc. 
If  applied  at  the  rate  of  4  tons  every  three  years,  it  would 
provide  for  135  acres  of  crops.  These  are  about  the  condi- 
tions on  many  160-acre  farms. 

If  the  manure  were  applied  at  the  rate  of  16  tons  every 
three  years,  it  would  provide  for  only  34  acres  of  crops. 
This  would  be  a  very  small  farm.  Another  way  to  provide 
for  the  larger  application  would  be  to  keep  four  times  as 
many  cows  on  the  larger  area.  But  this  would  make  a  very 
heavily-stocked  place. 

From  the  above,  we  see  that  one  of  the  strong  reasons  for 
keeping  a  moderate  number  of  cows  is  the  high  value  that 
can  be  obtained  from  the  intelligent  use  of  small  applications 
of  manure.  One  of  the  reasons  why  it  may  not  pay  to  stock 
the  farm  too  heavily  is  the  smaller  value  that  manure  then  has. 


238  DAIRY   FARMING 

212.  The  Value  of  Manure  Depends  on  the  Crops  on 
which  it  is  Applied.  At  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station,  8 
tons  of  manure  was  applied  on  wheat  as  compared  with  the 
same  application  on  potatoes.  The  manure  gave  increased 
crops  worth  $3.45  per  ton  when  applied  on  potatoes,  but  gave 
only  $2.72  per  ton  when  applied  on  the  wheat  crop.  If  one 
farmed  75  acres  of  this  land  with  this  three-year  rotation 
and  had  200  tons  of  manure  to  use  each  year,  he  would 
make  $3066  more  in  twenty-one  years  if  he  applied  it  on  the 
potatoes  rather  than  on  the  wheat. 

With  corn,  wheat,  and  oats,  each  grown  continuously  on  the 
same  land  at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station,  corn  paid  the  best 
prices  for  manure,  wheat  next,  and  oats  least. 

Such  experiments  indicate  the  great  importance  of  applying 
the  manure  on  the  right  crop  in  the  rotation.  They  also 
indicate  the  great  advantage  of  combining  dairying  with  the 
production  of  such  intensive  crops  as  potatoes. 

QUESTIONS    AND    PROBLEMS 

1.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  farmers  you  know,  with  the  number  of 
cows  that  they  keep,  and  state  whether  or  not  they  have  a  silo. 
Lists  by  different  members  of  the  class  can  be  combined  to  make  a 
cow  and  silo  census.     What  proportion  of  the  farmers  who  have  10 
cows  or  Jess  have  a  silo  ?     What  proportion  of  those  who  have  10  to 
20  cows  have  a  silo  ?     What  proportion  of  those  who  have  over  20  ? 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  silos  of  the  region.     Of 
as  many  as  possible,  find  the  cost  (including  labor  by  the  farmer) 
and  the  cost  for  each  ton  of  capacity. 

3.  If  any  farmers  have  cut  part  of  a  field  for  silage  and  have 
husked  part  of  the  same  field,  find  the  yield  of  silage  and  of  grain. 
How  many  bushels  of  corn  in  a  ton  of  silage  ?     If  the  use  of  the  silo 
and  machinery  and  extra  work  amount  to  $1.00  per  ton,  what  would 
a  ton  of  the  silage  cost  at  the  present  price  of  corn  ? 

4.  Does  any  one  in  the  region  follow  a  soiling  system  ? 

6.   Are  roots  raised  for  stock  food  by  any  farmers  in  this  region  ? 
6.   What  are  the  best  legumes  for  the  dairy  farm  in  this  region  ? 


SYSTEMS  OF  FARMING   ON  DAIRY  FARMS  239 

7  What  are  the  common  pasture  plants  of  the  region? 

8  What  are  the  usual  crops  grown  on  the  dairy  farms  of  this 
regioi  ? 

9  What  feeds  do  dairy  farmers  in  this  region  buy  ?     What  cash 
crops  or  other  products  are  sold  from  dairy  farms  ? 

10  What  crop  rotations  are  used  in  the  region?     Do  they  in- 
clude the  types  of  crops  that  make  a  good  cropping  system? 

11  What  are  the  usual  methods  of  handling  manure  in  this  re- 
gion ?     Is  it  taken  out  of  the  barns  with  a  carrier,  loaded  on  a  wagon 
drive  i  through  the  barn,  or  is  it  thrown  out  into  the  barnyard? 
Do  a  ly  farmers  in  the  region  haul  manure  every  day?     Do  any 
have  a  shed  in  which  manure  is  kept?      What  proportion  of  the 
f armt  rs  clean  up  and  haul  all  the  manure  at  least  twice  a  year  ? 
On  \v  lat  crops  is  the  manure  usually  applied,  and  at  what  rate  per 
acre  ? 

12  How  many  months  are  animals  usually  kept  in  the  barn 
here  ?     About  how  many  tons  of  manure  are  available  for  each  ani- 
mal u  lit  kept  ?     If  possible  find  the  tons  of  manure  hauled  by  some 
farme-  and  number  of  animals  kept.     How  many  tons  were  there 
per  ai  imal  unit  ? 

13.  For  some  farm  in  the  region  find  the  area,  acres  of  crops 
grown,  number  of  each  kind  of  animals,  and  crop  rotation.  Calcu- 
late tl  le  number  of  animal  units  and  probable  tons  of  manure  avail- 
able. On  which  crops,  how  often,  and  at  what  rate  would  you  use 
this  iranure? 

LABORATORY    EXERCISES 

35.  Field  Trip  to  a  Farm.  Visit  one  or  more  dairy  farms.  Make 
sketches  of  the  farms,  showing  location  of  different  fields.  What 
crops  *rere  grown  on  each  field  last  year  ?  What  was  done  with  the 
crops  ?  What  areas  will  probably  be  grown  this  year  ?  On  which 
field  is  the  manure  applied?  How  is  the  manure  cared  for?  Is 
the  pasture  permanent  or  rotated?  What  are  the  chief  plants  in 
the  pasture  ?  Is  the  pasture  land  good  land  for  use  in  raising  grain? 
What  disposition  was  made  of  the  crops  last  year?  Are  the  fields 
and  pasture  conveniently  arranged  as  to  size  and  nearness  to  the 
barn?  What  is  the  kind  and  amount  of  fencing?  How  many 
months  in  the  year  are  the  stock  kept  on  pasture?  For  how  many 
months  does  the  pasture  furnish  all  the  feed  ?  How  many  animal 
units  are  kept  in  the  pasture  ?  How  many  acres  of  pasture  per  ani- 
mal unit  ? 


CHAPTER   11 
RENTING    DAIRY    FARMS 

G.  F.  WARREN 

213.  Cash  Rent.     When  cash  rent  is  paid,  the  tenant  usu- 
ally furnishes  everything  but  the  land.     The  landlord  then 
has  little  to  do  with  the  farm.     In  some  regions  the  land- 
lord furnishes  the  cows  and  rents  the  farm  and  cows. 

214.  Share  of  Crops.     In  regions  where  grain  or  cotton 
is  the  major  product,  the  landlord  usually  receives  a  share 
of  the  crop.     If  cows  are  kept,  the  landlord  has  no  share  in 
them.     Only  rarely  does  a  good  dairy  farm  develop  under 
these   conditions.     The  landlord  is   not  likely  to   provide 
suitable  buildings.     The  tenant  justly  feels  that  the  manure 
produced  by  the  cows  he  feeds  increases  the  yield  of  the 
landlord's  land  with  no  expense  to  the  landlord. 

215.  Share  of  Receipts.     In  the  older  states  the  almost 
universal  system  of  sharing  the  products  on  rented  dairy 
farms  is  for  each  party  to  receive  half  of  the  receipts  from 
all  products  of  the  farm.     The  landlord  furnishes  the  land 
and  does  any  extensive  repairing  of  buildings.     For  small 
repairs  to  buildings  and  fences  he  usually  furnishes  materials, 
and  the  tenant  does  the  work.     He  usually  pays  the  taxes, 
pays  half    the  seed,  feed,  fertilizer,  threshing,  silo   filling, 
hay  pressing,  and  similar  bills ;    and  furnishes  half  or  more 
of  the  cattle  and  other  stock  from  which  he  shares  the  in- 
come. 

240 


RENTING  DAIRY  FARMS  241 

The  tenant  furnishes  the  human  labor,  machinery,  and 
hors  3S,  and  half  of  the  other  stock,  and-  pays  half  of  the  bills 
men  ioned  above.  He  pays  such  bills  as  horseshoeing  and 
mac  n'nery  repairs.  Each  party  has  half  of  the  receipts  and 
own ;  half  of  the  young  stock  raised. 

Ii  regions  where  little  but  milk  is  sold,  the  landlord  usually 
f urn  shes  all  cows  (see  page  244) .  When  profitable  cash 
crop  3  are  raised  in  addition  to  dairying,  the  tenant  usually 
f urn  shes  some  of  the  cows  (see  farm,  page  242) .  In  either 
case  the  calves  raised  are  usually  a  part  of  the  product,  to 
be  Divided  equally. 

1V1  any  variations  occur.  If  the  chances  of  making  a  profit 
are  )oor,  the  tenant  obtains  concessions  from  the  landlord. 
If  tie  chances  are  good,  the  tenant  may  make  concessions  to 
get  i  he  place.  The  landlord  often  furnishes  some  machinery 
or  he  rses,  usually  what  he  happens  to  own.  The  tenant  often 
owns  all  the  hens  and  receives  all  the  product  from  them. 
Usually  he  is  then  required  to  furnish  all  the  feed  for  them. 
A  hog  or  two  is  often  kept  in  the  same  way.  If  hogs  are 
an  important  enterprise,  the  feed  and  returns  are  divided. 
Sometimes  the  landlord  pays  all  the  fertilizer  bill  and  often 
furnishes  all  the  grass  seed.  Sometimes  the  tenant  furnishes 
all  the  grain  for  horses,  and  sometimes  this  cost  is  shared. 
Colts  usually  belong  to  the  tenant  but  are  sometimes  shared. 

The  fertility  of  the  land,  character  of  the  buildings,  quality 
of  the  cows,  distance  to  market,  price  of  milk,  size  of  the  farm, 
and  many  other  factors  must  be  considered  before  one  can 
say  what  the  exact  terms  of  the  lease  should  be.  For  the 
tenant  the  quality  of  the  cows  kept,  the  fertility  of  the  land, 
and  amount  of  good  crop  land  available  are  more  important 
than  minor  details  in  the  lease. 

It  seems  probable  that  this  general  system  of  rental  will 


242 


DAIRY  FARMING 


come  to  be  used  in  most  regions  where  dairying  becomes  the 
most  important  industry.  One  advantage  of  the  system  is 
that  it  stimulates  the  keeping  of  animals.  In  several  counties 
where  this  has  been  studied  the  results  show  that  the  rented 
farms  keep  more  live-stock  per  acre  than  do  the  farms  oper- 
ated by  owners. 

216.    Examples  of  Rented  Farms.     The  results  on  farms 
will  show  the  method  better  than  it  can  be  described. 


SUCCESSFUL  TENANT  FARM  IN  WESTERN  NEW  YORK  — 193 
ACRES.  A  VARIETY  OF  PRODUCTS  SOLD.  Cows  SHARED 
EQUALLY 


CAPITAL 

TENANT 

LANDLORD 

Farm      

$14,000 

Machinery  and  tools     
6  horses 

$   500 
750 

1  brood  sow    

8 

8 

Poultry 

21 

21 

20  cows       ... 

400 

400 

Calves  and  bull   

75 

75 

$1754 

$14,504 

CROPS 

ACRES 

TOTAL  CROP 

Corn 

4 

200  bushels 

Wheat    

32 

800  bushels 

Oats 

16 

560  bushels 

Timothy  and  clover 

33 

50  tons 

Potatoes     

4 

350  bushels 

Field  beans 

14 

252  bushels 

Apples    . 

1 

50  bushels 

Peas  for  canning  factory   
Sweet  corn  for  canning  factory  .... 
Sweet  corn  stalks  and  pea  vines  put  in  silo 

14 

8 

14  tons 
24  tons 

RENTING  DAIRY  FARMS 


243 


A  SUCCESSFUL  TENANT  FARM  IN  WESTERN  NEW  YORK — Continued 


. 

TENANT 

LANDLORD 

Rect  ipts 
Milk  

$1000 

$1000 

C;  ttle  sales  and  increased  inventory    . 
P<  ul  try  and  eggs 

30 
60 

30 
60 

H  >gs  

116 

116 

"Wheat     

343 

343 

Oj.ts   

168 

P(  tatoes      

49 

49 

252 

252 

Auples    

30 

P(  as   

175 

175 

Sveet  corn  

84 

84 

Exp<  nses 
Libor      

$2139 
$  200 

$2277 

Grass  seed   

40 

$     40 

Feed  

150 

150 

Fertilizer      .          

60 

60 

IVI  ichinery  Tip-keep 

20 

Bi  ilding  up-keep  .          

120 

Harvesting  

20 

Tv-dne                           

10 

Tb  resting  and  coal 

24 

24 

Insurance                         

8 

9 

Taxes      

36 

36 

Receipts  less  expenses    

$  568 
$1571 

$  439 
$1838 

Interest  on  tenant's  capital  @  5%  .     . 

$     88 

Tenant's  labor  income        

$1483 

Landlord's  per  cent  on  investment  . 

12.7 

This  farm  is  a  large  diversified  business  with  good  cows. 
Most  of  the  feed  raised  and  nearly  half  of  the  income  is 
derived  from  the  sale  of  crops.  The  provisions  of  the  lease 
are  the  usual  ones  for  a  farm  of  this  type.  With  a  farm  of 
this  size  and  with  good  cows  both  parties  are  doing  well. 


244 


DAIRY  FARMING 


A   SUCCESSFUL   TENANT  FARM   OF    190  ACRES   THAT  is   HIGHLY 
SPECIALIZED.     THE  LANDLORD  FURNISHES  ALL  THE  Cows 


CAPITAL 

TENANT 

LANDLORD 

Farm 

$13,300 

Machinery  and  tools                    .... 

$    425 

375 

Feed  and  supplies     

300 

300 

Cows                                                    ... 

1,725 

Heifers  and  calves    .     .     •  . 

210 

Bull   

200 

5  horses                                      

350 

175 

Colt        .          

75 

Hog  . 

8 

Hens                           

31 

80 

Turkeys      

6 

$1195 

$16,365 

CROPS 

ACRES 

TOTAL  CROP 

Silage  corn                                 

24 

188  tons 

Timothy  and  clover  hay   
Oats  

60 
30 

78  tons 
1200  bushels 

IVlangels                               

A 

250  bushels 

Potatoes          

1 

120  bushels 

Orchard  and  garden           

2 

TENANT 

LANDLORD 

Receipts 
Hay              .     . 

$  178 

$    178 

Milk                  

1239 

1239 

Cattle  sales  and  increased  inventory    . 
Hides                                                    .     . 

40 
1 

165 
1 

Colt  increased  inventory    
Outside  work 

15 
207 

Hogs                            

33 

33 

Eggs  . 

6 

25 

Poultry   

40 

$1759 

$1641 

RENTING  DAIRY  FARMS 


245 


TENANT 

LANDLORD 

Expi  rises 

$  400 

1M  ichinery  up-keep 

30 

Biilding  up-keep 

$     50 

F<  od                                        ..... 

76 

76 

Si  o  filling    

45 

If-'                                                .... 

4 

4 

15 

Si  illion  service 

10 

G  ass  seed                        

38 

T  vine      

8 

8 

T'  reshing                               

10 

10 

Fi  el  for  threshing  and  silo  filling     .     . 
In  Durance 

5 
10 

5 
10 

T;,xes       

66 

66 

Rect  ipts  less  expenses             

$  634 
$1125 

$  312 
$1329 

Interest  on  tenant's  capital  at  5%  .     .     . 
Ten;  nt's  labor  income 

$     60 
$1065 

Lam  lord's  per  cent  on  investment      .     . 

8.1 

QUESTIONS    AND    PROBLEMS 

1.  What  are  the  usual  systems  of  renting  in  your  region? 

2.  Do  the  systems  of  rental  encourage  the  keeping   of  stock? 
Do  tenant  farms  have  as  much  stock  as  farms  operated  by  owners? 

3.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  persons  you  can  find  who  have  re- 
cently changed  from  hired  man  to  tenant.     On  the  average  how 
many  years  did  they  spend  as  hired  men? 

4.  Make  a  list  of  as  many  persons  as  possible  who  have  changed 
from  tenant  to  owner  in  the  past  few  years.     On  the  average  how 
many  years  have  they  been  tenants? 

6.  Write  a  lease  that  seems  to  you  to  be  fair  to  both  parties  and 
that  gives  a  reasonable  consideration  to  maintenance  of  the  fertility 
of  the  land. 

COLLATERAL    READING 

Farm  Management,  G.  F.  Warren,  pp.  321-329. 
Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  L.  H.  Bailey,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  170-185. 
Farm  Leases  in  Iowa,  Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Bulletin  159. 


244 


DAIRY  FARMING 


A   SUCCESSFUL   TENANT  FARM   OF    190  ACRES   THAT   is   HIGHLY 
SPECIALIZED.     THE  LANDLORD  FURNISHES  ALL  THE  Cows 


CAPITAL 

TENANT 

LANDLORD 

Farm                                           •  . 

$13,300 

Machinery  and  tools     
Feed  and  supplies 

$    425 
300 

375 
300 

Cows                               .          

1,725 

Heifers  and  calves    .     •  . 
Bull                                            

210 
200 

5  horses       

350 

175 

Colt                                             .                .     . 

75 

Hoe- 

8 

Hens  .          

31 

80 

Turkeys      

6 

$1195 

$16,365 

CROPS 

ACRES 

TOTAL  CROP 

Silage  corn           

24 

188  tons 

Timothy  and  clover  hay 

60 

78  tons 

Oats                            .     .    •  

30 

1200  bushels 

Mangels      

« 

250  bushels 

Potatoes                               .               ... 

1 

120  bushels 

Orchard  and  garden      

2 

TENANT 

LANDLORD 

Receipts 
Hay              

$    178 

$    178 

Milk        

1239 

1239 

Cattle  sales  and  increased  inventory    . 
Hides                 

40 
1 

165 
1 

Colt  increased  inventory    
Outside  work              

15 
207 

Hogs  

33 

33 

EP-O-S 

6 

25 

Poultry   .  .   .     .     . 

40 

$1759 

$1641 

RENTING  DAIRY  FARMS 


245 


TENANT 

LANDLORD 

Exp<  uses 
L;  bor                                       .     .     .     f     . 

$  400 

1V1  xchinery  up-k66p 

30 

Bi  ilding  up-keep 

$     50 

F(  (3d                                   ...... 

76 

76 

Si  o  filling 

45 

le  •}                                                .... 

4 

4 

H  >rseshoeing 

15 

St  illion  service 

10 

G  ass  seed    

38 

Twine 

8 

8 

Tl  reshing                               

10 

10 

Fi  el  for  threshing  and  silo  filling 
In  surance 

5 
10 

5 
10 

T;  xes      

66 

66 

Rect  ipts  less  expenses 

$  634 
$1125 

$  312 
$1329 

Interest  on  tenant's  capital  at  5%  .     .     . 
Tenj  nt's  labor  income       

$     60 
$1065 

Lane  lord's  per  cent  on  investment      .     . 

8.1 

QUESTIONS    AND    PROBLEMS 

1.  What  are  the  usual  systems  of  renting  in  your  region? 

2.  Do  the  systems  of  rental  encourage  the  keeping   of  stock? 
Do  tenant  farms  have  as  much  stock  as  farms  operated  by  owners  ? 

3.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  persons  you  can  find  who  have  re- 
cently changed  from  hired  man  to  tenant.     On  the  average  how 
many  years  did  they  spend  as  hired  men? 

4.  Make  a  list  of  as  many  persons  as  possible  who  have  changed 
from  tenant  to  owner  in  the  past  few  years.     On  the  average  how 
many  years  have  they  been  tenants  ? 

5.  Write  a  lease  that  seems  to  you  to  be  fair  to  both  parties  and 
that  gives  a  reasonable  consideration  to  maintenance  of  the  fertility 
of  the  land. 

COLLATERAL    READING 

Farm  Management,  G.  F.  Warren,  pp.  321-329. 
Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  L.  H.  Bailey,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  170-185. 
Farm  Leases  in  Iowa,  Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Bulletin  159. 


CHAPTER   12 

COSTS   OF   PRODUCTION   AND    METHODS    OF 
MARKETING 

G.  F.  WARREN 
COST  OF  PRODUCTION 

217.  Cost  of  Producing  Milk.  Reliable  figures  on  the  cost 
of  keeping  cows  are  available  for  two  regions  that  repre- 
sent decidedly  different  dairy  conditions. 

Delaware  County,  near  New  York  City,  is  a  hilly  region 
where  the  pasture  season  is  short.  Practically  all  grain  is 
purchased.  Because  of  the  nearness  to  large  cities,  hay  is 
very  high  in  price.  In  this  county  the  average  cost  per  cattle 
unit  for  over  six  thousand  cows  was  $99.  The  year  whose 
records  are  here  quoted  was  one  of  unusually  high  feed  prices 
even  for  the  region.  In  the  following  year  the  cost  was  $88. 
All  the  costs  of  keeping  the  cows  and  of  the  calves  raised 
were  charged  directly  to  the  cows,  raising  calves  being  one 
means  of  offsetting  depreciation  on  cows.  How  near  these 
two  balance  in  this  region  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  re- 
turns from  cattle  and  hides  sold  were  only  $1  per  cow  above 
the  amounts  spent  for  cattle  purchased.  This  region  is  fairly 
typical  for  New  England  and  for  hilly  regions  in  other  states 
near  the  large  eastern  cities. 

Rice  County,  Minnesota,  represents  a  region  of  very  low- 
priced  feed.  The  figures  were  obtained  several  years  ago 
when  feed  was  cheaper  than  it  is  to-day.  Hay  is  worth  less 

246 


COSTS  OF  PRODUCTION  AND  METHODS  OF  MARKETING     247 


than  one-third  as  much  as  in  regions  like  Delaware  County, 
near  New  York  City.  Because  of  the  very  low  price  of  feed, 
the  average  cost  of  keeping  a  cow  was  only  $60. 

TABLE  28.  —  COST  OF  PRODUCING  MILK 


DELAWARE 
Co.1  N.  Y.( 
6422  Cows 

RICE  Co.2 
MINN. 

Qm  ntities 
Pounds  grain  f6d 

Per  Cattle  Unit 
1662 

Per  Cow 
864 

I'  ours  human  labor 

130 

133 

Pounds  milk  produced  per  cow   .     .     . 
Pounds  butter-fat  per  cow      .... 

Cos  :s 
F9ed         

4514 
208 

$66.60 

5252 

188 

$27.50 

B  odding 

75 

4 

Buildings                     

4.41 

2.46 

Dairy  equipment 

41 

.58 

Interest  .                          

2.94 

2.35 

Human  labor 

1826 

] 

Horse  labor       ....                ... 

.20 

\      18.66 

Hauling  milk 

501 

Bull  cost      

3 

1.98 

D  epreciation 

3 

3.19 

Miscellaneous  

.91 

3.28 

Less  cattle  increase  and  net  sales     .     . 

.92 

Total  cost 

$9857 

$60.00 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  costs  other  than  feed  are  al- 
most exactly  the  same  in  the  two  regions.  The  average 
costs  other  than  feed  for  keeping  cows  under  farm  conditions 
vary  widely  on  different  farms,  but  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases  for  grade  herds  are  between  $30  and  $40  per  cow.  In 

1  Report  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  American  Farm  Management  Asso- 
ciation, November,  1913. 

2  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  124. 

3  This  item  included  elsewhere.  4  Charge  for  this  item  not  given. 


248 


DAIRY  FARMING 


pure-bred  herds  the  costs  are  usually  much  more.  Next  to 
feed,  labor  is  the  most  important  cost.  The  importance  of 
having  the  farm  and  buildings  so  arranged  as  to  facilitate 
work  is  at  once  apparent. 

TABLE  29.  —  COST  OF  PRODUCING  MILK  ON  NEW  YORK  FARMS  1 


GRADE 

3ERD8 

PURE-BRE 

D  HERDS 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

Quantities 
Number  herds    .... 
Number  cows     .... 
Number  cows  per  herd     . 
Number  cattle  units   per 
iierd 

17 

297.5 
17.5 

239 

8 
189.6 
23.7 

309 

5 
110.5 
22.1 

328 

4 
85.5 
21.4 

363 

Average  value  of  cows 
Pounds  milk  per  cow 
Value  milk  per  cow      .     . 
Pounds  grain   per   cattle 
unit  
Pounds    dry    forage    per 
cattle  unit  .     .     . 
Pounds  silage   per  cattle 
unit   .   •  

$71.10 
6185 
$99.46 

1551 
3028 
6554 

$70.31 

5584 

$86.42 

1479  . 
2480 
5540 

$215.90 
7000 
$107.70 

2339 
3216 
6791 

$268.89 
7388 
$105.10 

2295 
3200 
8980 

Hours     man     labor     per 
cattle  unit       .... 
Costs  per  cattle  unit 
Grain 

116 

$22  71 

100 

$1899 

161 

$34  18 

183 

$34.24 

Dry  forage     

17.76 

12.90 

23.00 

16.88 

Silage  etc 

1290 

11  74 

1433 

17.47 

Pasture      ...... 

496 

4.43 

4.52 

4.15 

Bedding 

222 

1  33 

255 

2  70 

Man  labor      .... 

1926 

16.63 

27.86 

30.78 

Horse  labor 

2  64 

3  77 

3  22 

231 

Equipment  labor     .     .     . 
Interest     

.91 
3.55 

.76 
2.95 

.97 
11.21 

.79 
15.90 

Buildings 

2  81 

204 

2.34 

3.27 

Breeding  fees      .... 
•    Veterinary  and  medicine 
Miscellaneous     .... 

.003 
.20 
2.13 

.36 
.09 
1.95 

8.21 
.55 
6.92 

1.76 
.59 
10.16 

1  New  York  State  Department  of  Agriculture,  Circular  130,  p.  82. 


COSTS  OF  PRODUCTION  AND  METHODS  OF  MARKETING     249 


TABLE  29. — COST  OF  PRODUCING  MILK  ON  NEW  YORK  FARMS  — 

Continued 


GRADE 

HERDS 

PURE-BRE 

D  HERDS 

1913 

1914 

1913 

1914 

Suv  mary 
F  -ed      

$58.33 

$4806 

$76.03 

$72.74 

]\  tan  labor      . 
A  1  else 

19.26 
1446 

16.63 
13  25 

27.86 
35  97 

30.78 
37.48 

Total 

Returns  per  cattle  unit 
Milk1 

$92.05 

$7281 

$77.94 
$6624 

$139.86 
$72  61 

$141.00 
$61  73 

1  1  crease  and  net  sales  . 
Manure     
]V1  iscellaneous     .... 

18.02 
10.59 
.39 

13.37 

7.87 
.06 

87.01 
10.11 
1.79 

90.47 
10.12 
1.95 

Total 

Proj  t  per  cattle  unit    .     .     . 

$101.81 
$9.76 

$87.54 
$9.60 

$171.52 
$31.66 

$164.27 

$23.27 

From  these  costs  the  value  of  the  manure  should  be  de- 
ducted to  find  the  returns  that  the  average  farmer  would 
have  to  get  in  order  to  make  a  profit  on  cows.  For  Rice 
County  the  value  of  the  calf  would  also  have  to  be  deducted. 
This  value  is  included  in  the  Delaware  County  figures. 

Accurate  results  of  cost  accounts  on  a  number  of  New  York 
farms  including  673  cows  are  given  in  Table  29.  These 
farms  were  not  especially  selected  but  are  somewhat  larger 
and  better  managed  than  the  average  farm.  Most  of  them 
were  located  in  parts  of  the  state  where  feed  is  somewhat 
cheaper  than  in  Delaware  County.  The  accounts  are  with 
the  entire  dairy  herd  considered  as  a  unit. 

For  the  grade  herds  there  is  a  surprisingly  close  agree- 
ment with  Table  28  as  to  costs  other  than  feed.  The  pure- 
bred herds  cost  more  in  every  way,  but  the  returns  are  more 

1  Notice  that  this  is  total  milk  divided  by  the  number  of  cattle  units. 
The  value  of  the  milk  per  cow  is  given  above. 


250 


DAIRY  FARMING 


than  enough  to  cover  the  greater  cost.     The  pure-bred  herds 
on  the  average  pay  best. 

218.  Cost  of  Raising  Heifers.  The  cost  of  raising  heifers 
on  a  Wisconsin  farm  that  raised  about  twenty  a  year  was  kept 
for  five  years.  The  food  costs  to  raise  a  heifer  to  two  years  of 
age  varied  from  $39  to  $42.  The  total  costs  varied  from  $60 
to  $65  in  different  years.  The  average  cost  of  raising  one 
group  of  about  twenty  heifers  is  given  in  Table  30.  To  these 
costs  the  value  of  the  heifer  at  birth  should  be  added  and  the 
value  of  the  manure  produced  in  the  barn  subtracted.  Of 
course,  the  exact  figures  should  not  be  expected  to  apply  to 
another  farm,  but  the  comparative  costs  are  worth  studying. 

TABLE  30.  —  AVERAGE  COST  OF  RAISING  JERSEY  HEIFERS  TO  Two 
YEARS  OLD  ON  A  WISCONSIN  FARM  l 


RAISING  TO 
1  YEAR  OLD 

SECOND  YEAR 

TOTAL  2  YEARS 

Quantities  used 
Whole  milk,  Ib.  .... 
Skim-milk,  Ib  
Grain,  Ib  

342 
3165 
547 

342 
3165 
547 

Silage  Ib    .          ... 

353 

3250 

3603 

Mixed  hay,  Ib  

857 

1120 

1977 

Corn  stover,  Ib  
Days  pasture      .... 
Hours  man  labor     .     .     . 

Costs 
Feed                .          .     . 

123 
40 

$2458 

672 
171 
23 

$16  11 

672 
294 
63 

$40  69 

Bedding     
Labor 

1.00 
5  14 

2.00 

286 

3.00 
800 

Interest      

1  12 

2  53 

3.65 

Buildings 

1  57 

81 

2  38 

Equipment     

55 

.55 

Loss  by  discarding       .     . 
Miscellaneous      .... 

1.99 

.42 
1.38 

.42 
3.37 

Total 

$35.95 

$26.11 

$62.06 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bulletin  49. 


COSTS  OF  PRODUCTION  AND  METHODS  OF  MARKETING     251 

Tiie  quantities  of  feed  used  in  growing  heifers  at  the  Ohio 
Experiment  Station  and  estimated  costs  are  given  in  Tables 


FIG.  77.  —  The  heifers  for  which  the  costs  of  production  are  here 
given  in  Table  30. 

31  and  32.  These  heifers  were  fed  a  little  more  whole  milk 
and  were  fed  over  twice  as  much  grain  as  the  ones  men- 
tioned above.  The  costs  were  therefore  higher.1 

The  costs  other  than  feed  vary  from  $21  to  $28  in  the  dif- 
ferent results  here  quoted.  The  feed  costs  vary  from  $41  to 
$  58.  In  the  States  east  of  Ohio  feed  is  higher  in  price,  so  that 
this  cost  is  likely  to  be  more.  In  some  irrigated  regions  where 
alfalfa  hay  is  very  cheap,  the  feed  cost  may  be  lower. 
Where  skim-milk  is  not  available  the  feed  cost  is  somewhat 
higher,  but  need  not  be  prohibitive,  as  is  shown  on  pages  116 
to  118. 

1  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  289. 


252 


DAIRY  FARMING 


TABLE  31.  —  COST  OF  RAISING  29  JERSEY  HEIFERS  AT  THE  OHIO 
EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

Average  weights ;  at  birth  55  Ib. ;  at  one  year  472  Ib. ;  at  2  years 

758  Ib. 


RAISING  TO 
1  YEAR  OLD 

SECOND  YEAR 

TOTAL  2  YEARS 

Quantities  used 

Whole  milk,  Ib  

469 

469 

Skim-milk,  Ib  

2918 

87 

3005 

Grain,  Ib  

564 

785 

1349 

Silage,  Ib  

444 

2426 

2870 

Hay,  Ib  . 

767 

1038 

1805 

Stover,  Ib  .     .     .     . 

37 

254 

291 

Days  pasture      .... 

118 

159 

277 

Costs 

Feed     

$27.39 

$27.12 

$54.51 

Other  costs  estimated 

12.79 

14.89 

27.68 

Total 

$40.18 

$42.01 

$82.10' 

TABLE  32.  —  COST  OF  RAISING  22  HOLSTEIN  HEIFERS  AT  THE 
OHIO  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

Average  weights  ;  at  birth  82  ib. ;    at  1  year  571  Ib. ;  at  2  years 

962  Ib. 


RAISING  TO 
1  YEAR  OLD 

SECOND  YEAR 

TOTAL  2  YEARS 

Quantities  used 
Whole  milk,  Ib  
Skim-milk,  Ib  

445 
2661 

174 

445 
2835 

Grain,  Ib  
Silage,  Ib  
Hay,  Ib  
Stover  Ib 

647 
656 
796 
11 

870 
2247 
1419 
232 

1517 
2903 
2215 
243 

Days  pasture      .... 

Costs 
Feed                          .     .     . 

121 

$28.57 

151 
$29.55 

272 

$58.12 

Other  costs  estimated 

12.79 

14.89 

27.68 

Total 

$41.36 

$44.44 

$85.80 

COSTS  OF  PRODUCTION  AND  METHODS  OF  MARKETING     253 

MARKETING  DAIRY  PRODUCTS 

219.  Ways  of  Marketing.  The  milk  supply  in  many  small 
towns  and  cities  is  retailed  by  dairymen  who  produce  part 
or  ill  of  the  milk  that  they  sell.  There  are  some  oppor- 
tunities for  retailing  milk  in  regions  where  dairying  is  not  a 
general  industry.  Such  regions  are  likely  to  have  beef  or 
du;  1-purpose  cattle,  and  the  farmers  are  not  likely  to  know 
hov  •  to  care  for  a  dairy  animal.  One  who  has  good  cows  and 
wh-  >  knows  how  to  care  for  them  often  has  a  good  opportu- 
nity in  such  a  town.  Every  town  that  is  near  to  farm  land 
off(  rs  an  opportunity  for  some  retail  dairyman.  Some- 
times there  are  too  many  in  the  business  so  that  the  business 
wil)  not  pay  for  the  time  spent,  but  retailing  frequently  offers 
a  g  )od  chance  for  an  energetic  man. 

Many  farmers  make  butter  to  retail  in  a  near-by  town  or 
to  l)e  shipped  by  parcel  post.  The  prices  received  are  some- 
times enough  to  make  this  a  good  method  of  selling. 

The  great  majority  of  dairymen  have  to  sell  on  a  general 
market  at  prices  fixed  by  the  purchaser.  Sometimes  the 
conditions  are  such  that  the  selling  part  of  the  business  calls 
for  little  thought,  but  often  there  are  some  points  to  study. 
Cooperation  in  hauling  milk  is  often  a  great  saving  of 
time. 

If  the  price  of  milk  varies  with  the  fat  content,  the  farmer 
should  be  able  to  estimate  which  is  the  best  kind  of  milk  to 
produce.  If  he  has  more  than  one  market,  he  should  be  able 
to  make  similar  estimates.  In  regions  where  market  milk 
sells  for  so  much  that  one  cannot  afford  to  sell  the  product  in 
any  other  way,  one  often  sees  farmers  who  persist  in  selling 
butter-fat  or  butter  long  after  this  has  ceased  to  be  the  best 
practice. 


254  DAIRY  FARMING 

220.  Value  of  Skim-milk  in  Cities.  When  milk  is  sold  to 
the  creamery,  the  fat  basis  is,  of  course,  the  proper  basis  of 
payment.  Argument  is  often  made  that  payment  for  market 
milk  should  be  on  the  same  basis.  The  public  is  often  ac- 
cused of  ignorance  because  it  refuses  to  pay  for  milk  in  pro- 
portion to  the  fat  contained. 

For  human  food,  protein  is  probably  the  most  important 
constituent  of  milk.  How  much  the  cities  are  willing  to 
pay  for  skim-milk  is  shown  by  the  high  price  that  they  are 
willing  to  pay  for  milk  when  they  could  get  the  same  butter- 
fat  in  cream  at  much  less  cost.  If  the  other  constituents 
were  in  proportion  to  the  fat,  then  the  percentage  of  fat 
would  be  in  proportion  to  the  value  as  human  food,  but 
the  richness  in  protein  does  not  increase  so  rapidly  as 
the  fat. 

Common  retail  prices  in  New  York  City  are  9  cents  for 
milk,  40  cents  per  quart  for  23  per  cent  cream,  and  38  cents 
per  pound  for  butter.1  On  the  average,  milk  contains  about 
3.7  per  cent  fat.  At  these  prices  the  butter-fat  costs 
about  $1. 13  per  pound  in  milk,  82  cents  in  cream,  and  44 
cents  in  butter. 

Evidently,  milk  is  not  purchased  merely  for  its  butter-fat, 
else  butter-fat  in  cream  would  sell  at  the  same  price  that  it 
does  in  milk.  The  value  that  the  public  places  on  fat,  as 
measured  by  the  price  of  cream,  shows  that  about  27  per  cent 
of  the  amount  paid  for  milk  is  paid  for  food  that  is  contained 
in  the  skim-milk.  Stated  in  another  way,  if  the  value  of  the 
fat  is  measured  by  the  price  of  cream,  then  the  fat  in  a  quart 
of  milk  is  worth  6.5  cents,  and  the  skim-milk  sells  for  2.5 
cents.  Or,  if  the  fat  in  milk  is  considered  to  have  the  same 

1  Prices  furnished  by  the  Borden  Company  and  verified  from  several 
other  sources. 


COSTS  OF  PRODUCTION  AND  METHODS  OF  MARKETING      255 

value  as  the  fat  in  butter,  then  the  fat  in  a  quart  of  milk  is 
worth  3.5  cents,  and  the  skim-milk  sells  for  5.5  cents. 

QUESTIONS    AND    PROBLEMS 

} .  For  each  of  the  regions  given  in  Tables  28  and  29  find  the  feed 
cost  ind  all  other  costs  and  the  per  cent  that  the  feed  cost  is  of  the 
total  cost.  Compare  the  feed  costs  in  the  different  regiojis. 

2.  At  the  prices  of  feeds  in  this  region,  find  the  approximate 
valu<  of  the  feed  required  to  feed  a  cow,  as  given  in  Table  28. 

£.  What  per  cent  is  the  feed  of  the  total  cost  of  raising  heifers, 
as  gi  -en  in  Table  30. 

4.  At  prices  of  feed  and  milk  in  this  region,  find  the  approxi- 
mat(  value  of  the  feed  used  to  raise  a  heifer,  as  given  in  Table  30. 

6.  Using  the  weights  given  on  page  298,  how  many  pounds  are 
thert  in  one  gallon  of  milk?  In  one  gallon  of  35  per  cent  cream? 
How  many  quarts  in  100  pounds  of  milk  ?  In  100  pounds  of  20  per 
cent  Team? 

6.  In  what  proportion  should  milk  testing  3.2  per  cent  fat  and 
milk  testing  4.5  per  cent  fat  be  mixed  to  make  milk  testing  4  per 
cent  ? 

7  Using  figures  from  page  298,  how  much  dry  matter  is  there  in 
40  quarts  of  skim-milk?     In  100  pounds? 

8  Some  animal  food  is  necessary  for  good  success  with  hens. 
Meat  scrap  is  often  purchased  for  this  purpose  at  about  $3  per 
hundred  pounds.     It  is  also  fed  to  hogs.     It  contains  about  90  per 
cent  dry  matter,  but  the  dry  matter  is  not  so  valuable  as  that  in 
skim-tnilk.     If  the  dry  matter  in  skim-milk  is  worth  the  same  as 
that  in  meat  scrap,  what  would  100  pounds  of  skim-milk  be  worth? 
What  would  it  be  worth  per  quart? 

9.  A  farmer  is  offered  30  cents  a  pound  for  butter-fat,  or  $1.30 
per  hundred  for  whole  milk.  His  average  test  is  3.8  per  cent. 
Which  is  the  higher  price  ?  Would  the  skim-milk  be  worth  the  dif- 
ference as  feed  for  hogs  or  poultry? 

10.  What  would  be  received  for  100  pounds  of  4  per  cent  milk 
when  sold  at  each  of  the  following  prices : 

a.  3  cents  per  quart? 

6.  $1.50  per  100  pounds? 

c.  35  cents  per  pound  for  butter-fat  ? 

d.  30  cents  per  pound  for  butter  ? 


256 


DAIRY  FARMING 


Considering  the  value  of  skim-milk  and  the  labor  of  making 
butter,  which  would  be  the  best  way  to  sell? 

11.  The  prices  paid  for  milk  by  the  Borden  Company  from  April, 
1915,  to  March,  1916,  were  as  follows,  in  the  region  where  the  freight 
to  New  York  is  26  cents  per  40-quart  can. 


BUTTER-FAT 

3.0 

3.5 

4.0 

4.5 

5.0 

April      
May 

1.31 
1  06 

1.46 
1  21 

1.61 
1  36 

1.76 
1  51 

1.91 
1  66 

June  

1  00 

15 

1  30 

1  45 

1  60 

July  . 

1.16 

.31 

1  46 

1  61 

1  76 

August 

32 

47 

1  62 

1  77 

1  92 

September      

41 

56 

1  71 

1  86 

201 

October      
November 

.70 

80 

.85 
95 

2.00 
2  10 

2.15 
225 

2.30 
240 

December  

.80 

95 

2  10 

225 

2.40 

January 

70 

85 

200 

2  15 

230 

February   

65 

80 

1  95 

2  10 

225 

March   

.60 

.75 

1.90 

2.05 

2.20 

The  above  prices  will  be  paid  to  dairymen  where  they  maintain, 
during  this  contract,  conditions  scoring  not  less  than  25  per  cent  on 
equipment  and  43  per  cent  on  methods,  according  to  the  New  York 
Department  of  Health  Score  Card,  as  scored  by  the  Company's  rep- 
resentatives. Dairymen  scoring  less  than  25  per  cent  on  equip- 
ment and  43  per  cent  on  methods,  will  receive  ten  cents  per  100 
pounds  less  than  the  above  schedule.  Milk  of  intermediate  com- 
position was  paid  for  at  corresponding  prices. 

Calculate  the  average  price  for  the  year  for  milk  with  each 
per  cent  of  fat. 

What  is  the  average  price  for  fat  in  3  per  cent  milk  ?  What  is 
paid  per  pound  for  the  additional  fat  in  4  per  cent  milk  ?  In  5  per 
cent  milk?  What  is  the  price  for  the  additional  fat  above  3  per 
cent  in  all  cases  ? 

12.  If  skim-milk  is  worth  as  much  as  found  in  problem  8,  at  what 
price  would  butter  have  to  be  sold  to  bring  as  much  as  the  average 
price  paid  by  the  Borden  Company  for  3  per  cent  milk  ?     For  5  per 
cent  milk? 

13.  Using  the  average  production  given  on  page  42,  what  would 
be  the  value  of  the  milk  for  one  year  for  a  cow  of  each  breed  ? 


COSTS  OF  PRODUCTION  AND  METHODS  OF  MARKETING      257 

14.  Find  the  average  price  paid  at  retail  in  a  near-by  city  for 
butt*  r,  cream  with  known  fat  content,  and  milk.  What  price  is 
paid  for  fat  in  each  form? 

COLLATERAL    READING 

F  irm  Management,  G.  F.  Warren,  pp.  440-493. 
U    S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bulletin  49. 


CHAPTER   13 

OTHER    IMPORTANT    FACTORS    FOR    SUCCESS    IN 
DAIRY    FARMING 

G.  F.  WARREN 
WAYS  OF  MEASURING  PROFITS 

221.  The  Most  Important  Factors  for  Success.     In  a  dairy 
region  the  most  important  factors  have  been  shown  to  be 
the  size  of  the  business,  the  returns  per  cow,  the  crop  yields, 
and  the  diversity  of  the  business.1     Many  other  factors  have 
to  do  with  financial  success,  but  on  careful  examination  it  will 
be  found  that  most  of  them  are  covered  by  the  above.     For 
instance,  nothing  is  said  about  the  effective  use  of  labor,  but 
the  most  important  single  factor  controlling  such  use  is  the 
size  of  the  business.     The  following  are  some  of  the  many 
other  factors  that  cause  minor  variations  in  profit  on  many 
farms  and  that  sometimes  become  the  most  important  factors. 
Too  much  or  too  little  capital  may  be  invested  in  buildings 
or  stock.     Too  many  or  too  few  men  or  horses  may  be  kept. 
The  region  or  farm  may  not  be  adapted  to  dairying.     The 
wrong  kind  of  product  for  the  region  may  be  sold.     The 
barns  and  fields  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  aid  in  the  work, 
or   they  may   cause   a  loss  of  time.     Other  things    being 
equal,  large  cows  pay  better  than  small  ones. 

222.  Ways  of  Measuring  Profit.     Two  things  are  at  work 
on  a  farm  —  money  and  men.     To  be  called  a  financial  suc- 

1  Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  349. 

258 


FACTORS  FOR  SUCCESS  IN  DAIRY  FARMING  259 

cess  any  business  should  pay  a  reasonable  rate  of  interest  on 
the  capital  invested  and,  in  addition,  pay  fair  wages  for  the 
labor  used.  The  best  way  to  measure  profits  on  a  farm  is  first 
to  fi  (id  the  difference  between  the  receipts  and  the  business 
exp<  nses  for  a  year,  including  in  expenses  all  labor  except 
the  owner's.  This  difference  represents  the  pay  for  the  use 
of  ihe  capital  and  for  the  owner's  time.  The  interest  on 
the  noney  invested  in  the  business  calculated  at  5  per  cent, 
or  i\ :,  the  current  rate  of  interest,  should  be  subtracted  from 
the  ncome  from  capital  and  owner's  labor  to  get  the  amount 
left  ;o  pay  for  his  time.  This  is  called  his  labor  income.  The 
folk  wing  averages  from  73  farms  in  Illinois  show  the  method 
of  figuring : l 

Average  capital $51,091 

Average  receipts 5,042 

Average  farm  expenses        1,866 

Income  from  capital  and  owner's  labor  3,176 

Interest  on  capital  at  5  per  cent        .     .  2,555 

Owner's  labor  income 621 

SIZE  OF  BUSINESS 

223.  Size  of  Business.  In  order  to  be  most  economically 
manpged,  a  dairy  farm  should  be  large  enough  to  provide 
full  use  for  a  reasonable  equipment  of  modern  machinery. 
This  does  not  mean  that  it  should  be  one  of  the  great  costly 
and  money -losing  establishments  that  are  often  maintained 
by  wealthy  men.  But  it  does  mean  that  a  farm  is  working  at 
a  disadvantage  if  it  is  not  large  enough  to  provide  work  for 
two  or  three  persons.  Just  how  many  acres  this  will  require 
depends  on  the  richness  of  the  land  and  on  what  is  done  with 
the  milk.  A  small  area  of  land  that  will  naturally  grow  two 
tons  of  hay  and  fifty  bushels  of  corn  per  acre  will  represent 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bulletin  41,  p.  9. 


260 


DAIRY  FARMING 


as  large  a  business  as  many  more  acres  of  poor  soil.  If  milk 
is  sold  at  retail,  a  smaller  area  and  smaller  number  of  cows 
may  represent  an  equally  large  business.  But  even  when  milk 
is  sold  at  retail,  it  is  very  desirable  to  have  15  to  30  cows. 

How  important  a  reasonable  area  of  land  is  to  a  dairy 
farmer  is  shown  by  the  results  from  1988  farms  in  New  York 
as  given  in  Table  33. 

TABLE  33.  —  RELATION  OF  SIZE  OF  FARM  TO  LABOR  INCOME.  1988 
FARMS,  TOMPKINS,  LIVINGSTON,  AND  JEFFERSON  COUNTIES, 
NEW  YORK 


ACRES 

NUMBER  OF 
FARMS 

AVERAGE 
NUMBER  OF 
ACRES  PER 
FARM 

AVERAGE 
ACRES  OF 
CROPS 

AVERAGE 
LABOR 
INCOME 

30  or  less    .... 

74 

22 

14 

$121 

31-  50    ..... 

141 

44 

25 

252  . 

51-100    

616 

79 

40 

402 

101-150    

572 

126 

66 

568 

151-200    

304 

177 

89 

776 

Over  200       .... 

281 

281 

134 

995 

These  farms  are  fairly  typical  of  many  of  the  dairy  farms 
from  Dakota  to  New  England.  About  half  the  farm  is 
devoted  to  hay,  corn,  small  grain,  and  other  farm  crops. 
The  other  half  is  pasture,  or  woods  and  waste  land.  The 
farms  of  less  than  100  acres  are  on  the  average  not  paying 
the  owner  more  than  interest  and  hired  man's  wages.  There 
are  of  course  some  small  farms  that  pay  well,  but,  as  a  rule, 
the  larger  farms  pay  better.  Similar  results  have  been  ob- 
tained in  many  other  states. 

224.  Relation  of  Size  of  Farm  to  Efficiency  in  the  Use  of 
Labor.  In  every  region  where  such  studies  have  been  made 
the  small  farms  accomplish  much  less  per  man  than  do  the 


FACTORS  FOR  SUCCESS  IN  DAIRY  FARMING 


261 


fair-sized  farms.  Table  34  gives  results  for  one  county. 
Thi  average  number  of  men  per  farm  as  given  in  the  table 
incl  ides  all  human  labor.  Work  of  women  and  children  is 
expressed  in  terms  of  the  number  of  men  that  would  have 
bee;i  required  to  do  the  same  work.  On  the  smallest  farms, 
very  little  work  was  done  by  any  one  except  the  operator. 
On  the  farms  of  over  200  acres,  the  hired  labor  and  labor  by 
mei  ibers  of  the  family  amounted  to  the  time  of  one  and  one- 
thir-i  men,  or,  counting  the  time  of  the  farmer,  these  farms 
had  the  equivalent  of  2.35  men. 

The  farms  of  less  than  30  acres  had  an  average  of  3.5  animal 
unii  s  per  farm  besides  work  horses.  Those  of  over  200  acres 
had  an  average  of  34.2  animal  units  besides  work  horses. 

The  producing  enterprises  on  most  farms  are  the  acres  of 
crops  grown  and  the  animals  other  than  horses. 

TABLE  34.  —  RELATION  OF  SIZE  OF  FARM  TO  EFFICIENCY  IN  THE 
USE  OF  LABOR.     670  FARMS,  JEFFERSON  COUNTY,  NEW  YORK 


AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

NUMBER 
OP  ANIMAL 

ACRES  OF 

ANIMAL 
UNITS 

ACRES 

EQUIVA- 

ACRES  OP 
CROPS 

UNITS 

EXCEPT 

CROPS 
PER  MAN 

EXCEPT 

HORSES 

WORK 

PER  MAN 

HORSES 

30  or  less  . 

1.04 

14 

3.5 

13 

3 

31-50         .     .     . 

1.18 

25 

7.9 

21 

7 

51-100       .     .     . 

1.34 

40 

13.2 

30 

10 

101-150       .     .     . 

1.61 

66 

19.4 

41 

12 

151-200       .     .     . 

1.98 

89 

25.1 

45 

13 

Over  200      ... 

2.35 

134 

34.2 

57 

15 

The  acres  of  crops  grown,  the  yields  of  these  crops,  the 
number  of  producing  animals,  and  the  production  of  these 
animals  are  a  measure  of  the  amount  that  is  being  accom- 
plished on  a  farm.  The  crop  yields  and  the  production  of 


264 


DAIRY  FARMING 


Much  other  work  may  be  done,  such  as  repairing  machinery 
and  buildings,  taking  care  of  work  horses,  mowing  the  lawn, 
and  the  like,  but  it  is  the  productive  work  that  limits  the 
income. 

On  farms  in  Jefferson  County,  New  York,  the  average 
amount  of  productive  work  per  man  varied  from  102  work 
units  on  the  small  farms  to  294  on  the  largest  farms.  Each 
man  on  the  largest  farms  is  accomplishing  nearly  three  times 
as  much  work  as  a  man  on  the  small  farms.  It  must  be 
remembered  also  that  the  crop  yields  and  the  returns  per  cow 
are  as  good  on  the  larger  farms.  Each  horse  on  the  large 
farms  is  accomplishing  twice  as  much  as  each  horse  on  the 
small  farms.  The  farms  of  less  than  100  acres  are  very  waste- 
ful of  both  man  and  horse  labor. 

TABLE  37. —  RELATION  OF  SIZE  OF  FARM  TO  EFFICIENCY  IN  THE 
USE  OF  HORSES.  1248  FARMS,  JEFFERSON  AND  LIVINGSTON 
COUNTIES,  NEW  YORK 


ACRES 

NUMBER 
OF  FARMS 

ACRES  OP 
CROPS 

NUMBER 

OF 

HORSES 

ACRES  OF 
CROPS 
PER  HORSE 

30  or  less     
31-  50 

42 
64 

14.2 

284 

1.5 
23 

9.5 
123 

51-100    

315 

46.8 

3.1 

15  1 

101-150 

364 

73  5 

42 

17  5 

151-200    . 

226 

987 

50 

19  7 

Over  200  

237 

152.8 

7.2 

21.2 

226.  Relation  of  Size  of  Farm  to  Efficiency  in  the  Use  of 
Horses.  The  discussion  given  above  is  the  best  way  of  com- 
paring horse  labor.  Another  comparison  is  shown  in  Table 
37.  On  the  large  farms,  twice  as  many  acres  of  crops  are 
raised  per  horse  as  on  the  small  farms.  The  average  cost  of 
keeping  a  horse,  as  shown  by  cost  accounts,  is  about  $100  to 


FACTORS  FOR  SUCCESS  IN  DAIRY  FARMING 


265 


$175  a  year  in  different  parts  of  the.  United  States.  This 
includes  feed,  labor,  depreciation,  and  all  other  costs.  From 
tlnV  the  importance  of  the  efficient  use  of  horses  is  apparent. 
227.  Relation  of  Size  of  Farm  to  Efficiency  in  the  Use  of 
Machinery.  The  small  farms  are  very  inadequately  equipped 
wit! i  machinery,  as  is  shown  in  Table  38.  Even  the 

TAI  LE  38.  —  RELATION  OF  SIZE  OF  FARM  TO  EFFICIENCY  IN  THE 
USE  OF  MACHINERY.  1248  FARMS,  LIVINGSTON  AND  JEFFER- 
SON COUNTIES,  NEW  YORK 


ACRES 

ACRES  OF 
CROPS 

VALUE  OP 
MACHINERY 

VALUE  OP 
MACHINERY 
PER  ACRE 
OP  CROPS 

30  or  less     

14.2 

$141 

$9.93 

31     50 

28.4 

207 

7.29 

51  100                   .... 

46.8 

426 

9.10 

101  150 

73  5 

497 

6.76 

151  200                         .     .     . 

98.7 

613 

6.21 

Over  200 

152  8 

833 

5.45 

farms  of  over  200  acres  have  an  investment  in  machinery  of 
only  $833.  This  represents  machinery  of  all  ages.  Prob- 
ably the  cost  when  new  would  be  over  twice  as  much,  but 
even  this  sum  will  not  provide  all  the  well-established  ma- 
chines, such  as  a  grain-binder  and  manure-spreader  for  each 
farm.  But,  while  the  small  farms  are  not  well  equipped, 
their  machinery  cost  per  acre  of  crops  is  almost  double  that 
on  the  larger  farms. 

228.  Relation  of  Size  of  Farm  to  Efficiency  in  the  Use  of 
Capital.  The  small  farm  has  relatively  much  more  of  its 
capital  invested  in  unproductive  ways  than  does  the  large 
farm.  No  matter  how  small  the  farm  may  be,  the  owner 
desires  a  respectable  house.  Table  39  shows  that  the  small- 


266 


DAIRY  FARMING 


est  farms  have  43  per  cent  of  their  capital  in  houses ;  the 
largest  farms  have  somewhat  better  houses,  but  have  only 
9  per  cent  of  their  capital  thus  invested. 


TABLE  39.  —  AREA  RELATED  TO  INVESTMENT  IN  BUILDINGS. 
FARMS,  LIVINGSTON  COUNTY,  NEW  YORK 


578 


ACRES 

VALUE  OF 
HOUSES 

PER  CENT 
OP  TOTAL 
CAPITAL 
IN  HOUSES 

VALUE 
OP  OTHER 
BUILDINGS 

PER  CENT 
OP  TOTAL 
CAPITAL 
IN  OTHER 
BUILDINGS 

VALUE 
OP  OTHER 
BUILDINGS 
PER  ANI- 
MAL UNIT 

30  or  less   .     .     . 

$1494 

43 

$  655 

19 

$164 

31-  50        ... 

1000 

23 

681 

15 

95 

51-100       .     .     . 

1236 

18 

1091 

16 

87 

101-150       .     .     . 

1477 

14 

1408 

13 

74 

151-200       .     .     . 

1810 

13 

1900 

13 

73 

Over  200      .     .     . 

2113 

9 

2552 

11 

50 

The  barns  on  the  small  farms  also  take  a  much  larger 
proportion  of  the  capital.  The  smallest  farms  have  19  per 
cent  of  their  capital  thus  invested,  the  largest  farms  have 
only  11  per  cent  thus  tied  up.  A  barn  for  ten  head  of  stock 
costs  much  more  than  half  as  much  as  an  equally  good  barn 
for  twenty  head  of  stock.  The  smallest  farms  have  an 
investment  in  barns  of  $164  per  animal  unit.  The  largest 
farms  have  only  $50  per  animal  unit.  Yet  observations  lead 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  stock  on  the  larger  places  is  better 
housed.  If  interest,  repairs,  depreciation,  and  insurance  on 
a  building  amount  to  8  per  cent  of  the  value,  then  the  housing 
cost  per  animal  unit  will  vary  .from  $13  per  year  on  the  small- 
est farms  to  $4  per  year  on  the  largest. 

Similar  results  for  the  United  States  are  shown  in  Table 
40.  These  indicate,  as  for  other  points  in  this  work,  that 
the  results  are  of  general  rather  than  local  application.  The 


FACTORS  FOR  SUCCESS  IN  DAIRY  FARMING 


267 


farms  of  less  than  20  acres  have  36  per  cent  of  their  capital 
invested  in  buildings  and  machinery.  Those  of  100  to  174 
acr<  s  have  only  17  per  cent  of  the  money  thus  invested,  yet 
they  have  much  better  buildings  and  more  machinery. 
Money  thus  employed  not  only  is  unproductive,  but  it  is  a 
soiree  of  constant  cost  for  repairs.  If  a  farmer  had  all  his 
money  invested  in  buildings  and  machinery,  his  income 
would,  of  course,  be  zero.  In  fact,  he  would  not  be  a  farmer 
at  nil. 

TAILE  40.  —  AREA  RELATED  TO  INVESTMENT  IN  BUILDINGS  AND 
MACHINERY,.  FOR  UNITED  STATES,  1909,  FROM  THE  CENSUS 
REPORT 


ACRES 

VALUE  OF 
BUILDINGS 
PER  FARM 

PER  CENT 
OF  CAPI- 
TAL IN 
BUILDINGS 

VALUE  OF 
MACHIN- 
ERY 

PER  CENT 
OF  CAPI- 
TAL IN 
MACHIN- 
ERY 

Umier  20       

$   605 

34 

$     56 

2.5 

L!0-  49     
.r»0-  99 

474 

848 

21 
19 

76 
156 

2.8 
3.1 

100-174     
175-499     
500-999     

1182 
1734 
2174 

14 
10 

8 

241 
390 
639 

2.7 
2.4 
2.4 

100(1  or  over 

3330 

5 

1196 

1  0 

229.  Size  of  the  Herd.  In  regions  where  very  little  ex- 
cept dairy  products  is  sold,  the  number  of  cows  kept  is  the 
best  measure  of  the  size  of  the  business.  Table  41  gives 
results  from  such  a  region  in  Jefferson  County,  New  York, 
and  shows  that  farmers  who  have  herds  of  20  or  more  cows 
are  doing  very  much  better  than  those  who  have  smaller 
herds.  In  fact,  the  size  of  the  herd  is  as  important  as  the 
quality  of  the  cows.  The  usual  advice  to  sell  the  poorest 
cows  and  keep  only  the  best  ones  should  be  changed  to  the 
more  practical  advice  to  replace  the  poorest  cows  by  good 


268 


DAIRY  FARMING 


ones,  rather  than  leave  half  of  the  barn  empty.  A  cow  that 
is  much  too  poor  to  keep  may  yet  pay  as  well  as  an  empty 
stanchion.  Of  course,  if  the  farm  has  too  many  cows  for  its 
area,  it  will  pay  to  sell  the  poorest  ones  and  decrease  the 
number.  In  regions  like  Jefferson  County  that  are  well 
adapted  to  dairying  and  not  adapted  to  many  other  things, 
herds  of  20  to  30  cows  when  kept  on  farms  that  are  large 
enough  for  the  herd,  are  usually  more  profitable  than  small 
herds.  Of  course  the  number  of  cows  should  not  be  increased 
out  of  proportion  to  the  farm.  On  the  other  hand  extremely 
large  herds  are  a  disadvantage  because  the  farm  family  is 
ordinarily  not  able  to  do  the  work  and  too  much  labor  must 
be  hired. 

TABLE  41.  —  RELATION  OF  NUMBER  OF  Cows  AND  MILK  SOLD 
PER  Cow  TO  LABOR  INCOME.  585  FARMS,  JEFFERSON 
COUNTY,  NEW  YORK 


MILK  SOLD  PER  Cow 

NUMBER  OF  Cows 

6-10 

11-20 

Over  20 

Less  than  $50  .  .  .  •  .  . 
$51-75 

Labor  Income 

$632 
447 
599 
760 

Labor  Income 

$  481 
704 
836 
1054 

Labor  Income 

$1046 
1093 
1249 
1959 

76-100  '  . 
Over  100 

230.  Summary  of  Size  of  Dairy  Farms.  Unless  a  dairy 
farm  keeps  four  or  five  horses,  it  cannot  take  advantage  of 
the  great  economy  in  human  labor  that  comes  from  the  use 
of  four-horse  machinery.  But  each  horse  ought  to  raise 
20  to  30  acres  of  crops  so  that  this  calls  for  80  or  more 
acres  of  crops.  If  25  cows  and  young  stock  are  kept, 
there  will  usually  need  to  be  60  to  100  acres  of  pasture. 
This  calls  for  140  to  200  acres  of  land,  a  very  common  size 


FACTORS  FOR  SUCCESS  IN  DAIRY  FARMING  269 

in  most  of  the  dairy  regions  of  the  United  States.  The  aver- 
age size  of  farms  among  subscribers  to  Hoard's  Dairyman 
was  reported  to  be  167  acres.  In  some  of  the  rich  irrigated 
valLys  the  pastures  and  alfalfa 'are  so  productive  that  a 
considerably  smaller  area  provides  an  equally  large  business. 
In  some  very  fertile  regions  like  Lancaster  County,  Pennsyl- 
vania, where  very  intensive  crops  are  combined  with  dairying, 
a  fai  m  of  60  to  80  acres  represents  as  large  a  business  as  two 
or  tiiree  times  this  area  in  some  regions. 

Kot  every  dairyman  has  money  enough  to  buy  a  farm  of 
the  best  size,  but  there  are  other  ways  of  obtaining  land. 
The  usual  steps  in  becoming  a  farm  owner  are  :  first,  to  work 
as  a  hired  man  ;  then  to  become  a  tenant ;  then  own  a  mort- 
gag<  d  farm ;  and  finally  pay  off  the  mortgage.  Only  36  per 
cent  of  the  farmers  in  the  United  States  own  free  from  mort- 
gage all  the  land  that  they  operate.  If  one  who  has  too 
small  .a  farm  knows  how  to  farm  and  how  to  live  economically, 
he  will  often  find  it  profitable  to  go  in  debt  to  buy  more 
land.  A  mortgage  is  not  necessarily  a  bad  thing.  The  im- 
portant point  to  consider  is  the  use  to  which  the  borrowed 
money  is  put.  It  may  not  be  wise  to  mortgage  a  farm  for 
the  purpose  of  buying  an  automobile,  but  it  may  be  good 
business  to  mortgage  it  to  buy  additional  cows  or  land 
that  is  needed.  Another  way  of  enlarging  the  farm  is  to 
rent  additional  land.  There  are  half  a  million  farmers  in 
the  United  States  who  own  part  of  the  land  that  they  operate, 
and  who  rent  additional  land. 

RETURNS  PER  Cow 

231.  Reasons  for  Poor  Returns.  No  single  factor  is 
more  important  than  the  returns  per  cow  (see  Table  41). 
Low  returns  may  be  due  to  not  having  a  good  market  for 


270  DAIRY  FARMING 

dairy  products,  or  may  be  due  to  selling  the  wrong  kind 
of  product ;  for  instance,  making  butter  in  a  region  where 
there  is  a  good  demand  for  market  milk  at  much  better 
prices.  Low  returns  may  be  due  to  keeping  the  wrong 
kind  of  cattle  for  the  region  or  for  the  kind  of  product  sold, 
or  to  poor  production  because  of  poor  care  or  feed,  or  to 
having  cows  that  are  naturally  not  good  ones.  Before 
one  can  intelligently  change  his  practice,  he  must  find  out 
to  which  of  these  causes  his  poor  returns  are  due.  The 
preceding  chapters  have  given  attention  to  feeding  and 
to  determining  which  are  the  cows  that  are  naturally 
poor,  so  that  nothing  more  need  be  said  on  these  most 
vital  points. 

Even  in  regions  unfavorable  for  dairying  there  are  usually 
some  persons  who  make  more  money  by  combining  dairying 
with  their  other  farm  work  than  they  would  make  if  they 
did  not  keep  cows.  Everywhere  there  must  be  cows  enough 
to  supply  the  fresh  milk  even  if  butter  is  shipped  in. 
But  in  some  regions  the  prices  of  products  are  low  com- 
pared with  feed  prices  and  other  costs.  In  such  regions,  a 
farmer  who  is  only  a  fair  dairyman  may  find  that  it  pays 
best  to  keep  only  a  few  cows  or  possibly  to  keep  only  enough 
to  supply  products  for  home  use. 

In  some  regions  milk  is  sold  by  the  quart  at  the  same 
price  regardless  of  the  percentage  of  butter-fat.  In  such  a 
region,  herds  that  give  a  high  test  are  at  so  great  a  disad- 
vantage that  they  cannot  often  be  made  to  pay. 

Those  who  keep  pure-bred  cattle  sometimes  fail  to  make 
a  profit  because  they  select  a  breed  that  is  not  desired  in  the 
region.  The  best  market  for  the  surplus  stock  of  the  small 
breeder  is  nearly  always  in  his  neighborhood.  He  should 
raise  the  kind  that  is  wanted. 


FACTORS  FOR  SUCCESS  IN  DAIRY  FARMING  271 

232.  Costs  and  Returns  must  Both  be  Considered.     No 
set  standard  can  be  given  for  the  receipts  that  are  necessary 
in  01  der  to  make  a  profit,  because  the  costs  of  feed  and  labor 
are  ^o  variable  in  different  regions-  and  on  different  farms  in 
the  ;•  ame  region.     But  many  studies  of  this  question  have 
indicated  that  it  is  a  fairly  easy  matter  to  obtain  receipts  per 
cow  of  a  half  more  than  the  average  for  the  region.     Usually 
the  :nost  profitable  farms  in  a  region  are  doing  as  well  as 
this.     But  increased  costs  must  also  be  considered.     It  is 
not    he  return  per  cow,  nor  the  cost,  that  is  of  most  impor- 
tance, but  the  relation  between  the  two.     Sometimes  the 
bett<  r  returns  are  obtained  at  too  great  cost.     On  the  other 
hami,  a  dairy  herd  that  produces  less  than  the  average  some- 
times pays,  because  the  farmer  has  reduced  the  cost  of  feed 
and  labor  to  a  still  lower  point. 

233.  For  Good  Returns  the  Poor  Producers  should  be 
Promptly  Sold.     In  one  county  in  New  York  the  farmers 
who  obtained  the  best  production  per  cow  were  doing  the 
most  buying  and  selling  of  cows.     Those  who  obtained  poor 
to  fair  returns  were  on  the  average  replacing  1  cow  in  23  by 
purchase,  but  those  who  obtained  the  best  returns  replaced 
one-seventh  of  the  herd  each  year  by  purchase. 

Those  who  got  the  lowest  production  per  cow  replaced  one- 
seventh  of  the  herd  each  year  by  cows  purchased  or  raised. 
Those  who  obtained  good  production  replaced  one-fifth, 
and  those  who  got  the  best  production  replaced  one-fourth 
each  year.  They  disposed  of  poor  cows  and  milked  good 
cows  whether  they  were  home-raised  or  purchased.  The 
essential  point  is  not  who  raised  the  cow,  but  how  much 
her  milk  is  worth. 

234.  Size  of  Cows.     As  machines  for  changing  feed  into 
milk,  large  cows  and  small  cows  seem  to  be  about  equally 


272 


DAIRY  FARMING 


effective.  But  the  milk  produced  for  a  given  amount  of 
barn  room  and  labor  is  also  important.  Of  two  animals 
that  are  equally  efficient  users  of  food,  the  larger  animal  is 
usually  much  more  profitable.  Table  42  gives  the  value 
of  the  milk  and  value  of  the  feed  for  355  cows  in 
Wisconsin. 

TABLE  42.  —  RELATION  OF  SIZE  OF  Cows  TO  VALUE  OF  PRODUCT 
ABOVE  FOOD  CosT1 


WEIGHT  OF 
Cows 

AVERAGE 
WEIGHT 

NUMBER 

OP 

Cows 

POUNDS 

OP 

BUTTER- 
PAT 

VALUE  OP 
PRODUCT 

VALUE  OP 
FEED 

VALUE 

OF 

PRODUCT 

FOR  $1 

IN  FEED 

VALUE 

OF 

PRODUCT 

ABOVE 

FOOD 
COST 

900  and 

under 

847 

87 

366.2 

$114.52 

$60.32 

$1.90 

$54.20 

901-1000 

952 

82 

417.8 

131.22 

69.86 

1.88 

61.36 

1001-1  1DO 

1071 

53 

447.8 

142.56 

76.28 

1.87 

66.28 

1101-1200 

1175 

60 

477.7 

155.02 

82.81 

1.87 

72.21 

1201-1300 

1276 

31 

506.2 

163.52 

91.51 

1.79 

72.01 

1301-1400 

1379 

26 

525.8 

171.79 

92.15 

1.86 

79.64 

Over  1400 

1556 

16 

566.6 

184.61 

96.60 

1.91 

88.01 

It  takes  very  little  more  barn  room  and  very  little  more 
labor  to  care  for  large  cows  than  it  does  for  small  ones. 
Medicine,  veterinary  fees,  and  many  other  expenses  cost 
about  the  same  for  large  as  for  small  cows.  These  costs  were 
found  to  be  $25  per  year  in  Minnesota,  and  $29  in  New 
York  (page  247). 

According  to  the  figures  in  Table  42  a  herd  of  15  cows  av- 
eraging 1276  pounds  in  weight  would  make  more  butter  than 
20  cows  averaging  847  pounds.  The  saving  on  labor,  barn 
room,  and  other  fixed  costs,  would  be  about  $125  per  year 


1  Data  furnished  by  F.  W.  Woll,  for  cows  whose  records  are  reported  in 
Wisconsin,  Bulletin  226. 


FACTORS  FOR  SUCCESS  IN  DAIRY  FARMING  273 

by  keeping  the  smaller  number  of  large  cows.  Where  the 
land  is  level,  and  particularly  if  hay  or  other  roughage  is 
abimdant,  large  cows  are  usually  more  profitable.  Even 
if  nnall  ones  are  introduced  the  farmers  usually  change 
to  large  ones  in  time.  Where  the  pastures  are  on  steep, 
rocky  hillsides  small  cows  are  better  able  to  hold  their 
pla<  e.  If  pastures  are  very  poor,  the  large  cow  is  at  a 
dis;  id  vantage.  She  needs  more  feed,  but  she  is  not  able 
to  valk  so  far  as  the  small  one.  In  the  South  where 
hea  and  insects  are  both  serious  enemies  of  the  dairy 
business,  nearly  all  of  the  cows  kept  are  of  the  small  active 
bre<  ds. 

Records  of  110  cows  kept  by  the  University  of  Nebraska 
showed  that  cows  averaging  801  pounds  in  weight  gave  an 
average  of  263  pounds  of  butter-fat,  those  weighing  1002 
pouads  gave  278  pounds  of  fat,  and  those  averaging  1211 
pounds  produced  346  pounds  of  butter-fat.  The  production 
was  in  proportion  to  the  size.1 

Of  course  the  vital  point  is  production  per  cow.  If  one  is 
buying  a  cow  with  a  known  record,  it  is  the  record  that 
should  be  considered.  A  large  cow  that  is  a  failure  is  a 
bigger  failure  than  a  small  one  that  is  a  failure.  The  best 
success  comes  from  keeping  large  cows  that  are  also  good 
for  their  size. 

When  large  numbers  are  considered,  the  production  and 
feed  consumption  seem  to  be  about  in  proportion  to  the  size. 
The  advantage  of  having  large  animals  is  in  the  saving  of 
barn  room  and  labor,  just  as  there  is  an  advantage  in  using 
a  six-foot  mower  rather  than  a  four-foot  one. 

1  Records  of  cows  reported  in  Nebraska  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
Bulletin  139.  Cows  sorted  by  average  weights  for  the  years  reported,  into 
three  groups,  900  pounds  or  less,  901-1100  pounds,  and  over  1100  pounds. 


274  DAIRY  FARMING 

CROP  YIELDS 

The  returns  from  crops  and  costs  of  these  crops  have  as 
much  to  do  with  the  success  of  the  farm  as  a  whole  as  do  the 
returns  from  the  cows.  It  is  not  enough  that  the  farmer 
be  a  good  dairyman,  he  should  be  a  good  dairy  farmer. 
Sometimes  the  farmer  raises  crops  that  are  good  for  feed 
but  cost  too  much  to  raise.  More  frequently  the  yields  are 
not  good  enough  to  be  profitable. 

235.  Soils  for  the  Dairy  Farm.     Only  under  exceptional 
conditions  does  it  pay  to  choose  land  that  is  not  naturally 
productive.     The  farmer  ordinarily  raises  all  the  hay  and 
part  of  the  grain  for  the  cows.     If  he  buys  grain,  he  ought 
to  have  for  sale  some  product  other  than  milk  that  will  more 
than  pay  the  feed  bill.     It  is  usually  difficult  for  a  farmer  who 
has  poor  land  to  succeed  in  competition  with  those  who  have 
good  land.     Occasionally,  but  not  usually,  the  poor  land  is 
enough  cheaper  to  make  up  for  the  difference  in  quality. 

The  best  dairy  soils  are  loams  and  clay  loams  that  grow 
grass  well.  The  great  dairy  sections  of  the  North  are  on 
soils  that  grow  Kentucky  blue-grass  and  white  clover  for 
pasture,  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  and  corn.  Dairy  farms  do 
not  as  a  rule  buy  much  chemical  fertilizer.  The  farmers 
who  get  better  crops  than  their  neighbors  are  as  a  rule 
receiving  greater  profits  than  the  average,  but  as  in  the 
case  of  good  returns  per  cow,  the  returns  are  sometimes 
obtained  by  methods  that  are  too  costly.  Sometimes  poor 
crops  are  grown  by  such  economical  methods  that  they  pay 
well.  Many  successful  farmers  have  crops  a  fifth  better 
than  their  neighbors  grow. 

236.  The  Well-balanced  Farm.      If  a  good-sized  business, 
good  cows,  and  good  crops  are  three  of  the  most  important 


FACTORS  FOR  SUCCESS  IN  DAIRY  FARMING 


275 


fadors  for  success,  then  a  farmer  who  excels  in  all  three 
ought  to  do  very  well  indeed.  With  rare  exceptions  this  is 
the  case.  Table  43  gives  the  labor  incomes  on  585  farms. 

TAI  LE  43.  —  RELATION  OF  SIZE  OF  FARM,  RECEIPTS  PER  Cow, 
AND  CROP  YIELDS,  TO  LABOR  INCOME  ON  585  FARMS  WITH 
Six  OR  MORE  Cows,  JEFFERSON  COUNTY,  NEW  YORK 


ACRES 

100  or  less 

101-150 

Over  150 

Labor  Income 

Labor  Income 

Labor  Income 

Receipts  per  cow  $50  or  less 

(  rop  index  85  per  cent  or  less 

$308 

$  273 

$  331 

(  rop  index  86—115  per  cent 

381 

482 

424 

(rop  index  over  115  per  cent 

158 

415 

413 

Receipts  per  cow  $51-$75 

(rop  index  85  per  cent  or  less 

304 

590 

669 

Crop  index  86-115  per  cent 

437 

653 

1017 

(rop  index  over  115  per  cent 

-     537 

636 

1161 

Receipts  per  cow  over  $75 

Crop  index  85  per  cent  or  less 

594 

935 

1233 

Crop  index  86-115  per  cent 

641 

1038 

1148 

Crop  index  over  115  per  cent 

659 

1124 

1291 

They  are  grouped  as  small,  medium,  and  good-sized  farms ; 
small,  medium,  and  good  returns  per  cow ;  and  small,  medium, 
and  good  crop  yields ;  so  that  there  are  27  different  com- 
binations (crop  index  compares  the  crops  with  average  crops 
as  100  per  cent).  A  study  of  this  table  indicates  that  if  the 
crops  are  wasted  by  being  fed  to  cows  that  give  very  poor 
returns,  the  final  result  is  poor,  even  with  a  good-sized  farm 
and  good  crops.  Medium  cows  and  medium  crops  with 
a  good-sized  farm  pay  very  much  better  than  the  best  cows 
and  crops  on  a  small  farm.  Improvement  in  any  one  of 
the  three  points  helps,  but  well-balanced  improvement  in 
all  is  best.  A  fourth  important  factor  for  success  in  dairy 


276 


DAIRY  FARMING 


farming  is  the  diversity  of  the  business.  It  usually  pays 
better  to  have  cash  crops  or  other  products  combined  with 
the  dairy. 


DIVERSIFIED  AND  SPECIALIZED"  DAIRY  FARMS 

237.  Relation  of  Cash  Crops  to  Profits.  As  has  previously 
been  mentioned  (page  229),  farmers  who  combine  cash  crops 
or  some  other  product  with  dairying,  usually  make  more 
than  do  those  who  sell  nothing  but  dairy  products.  The 
poorer  the  cows,  or  the  lower  the  price  of  dairy  products, 
the  more  important  it  is  that  crops  be  sold.  But  even 
with  extra  good  returns  per  cow,  those  who  sell  some  crops 
are  usually  doing  better  than  those  who  sell  no  crops, 
as  is  shown  in  Table  44.  The  results  here  given  are 
for  a  typical  region  in  New  York.  In  the  corn-belt  the 
most  generally  profitable  type  of  dairy  farming  is  to  raise 
corn  for  sale  or  for  hog  feed  in  addition  to  raising  feed 
for  the  cows. 

TABLE  44.  —  RELATION  OF  RECEIPTS  PER  Cow  AND  CASH  CROPS 
TO  PROFITS  ON  585  FARMS  WITH  Six  OR  MORE  Cows.  JEF- 
FERSON COUNTY,  NEW  YORK 


PER  CENT  OF  RECEIPTS  PROM  CROPS 

RECEIPTS  P 

ER    COW    PROW 

ITS  PRODUCTS 

MILK  AND 

$50  or  less 

$51-$75 

Over  $75 

Labor  Income 

$  56 

Labor  Income 

$  571 

Labor  Income 

$  926 

1—20  per  cent  

311 

589 

962 

21-40      

426 

947 

1183 

41-60                               .... 

554 

1366 

i 

Over  60            ....... 

599 

i 

2 

Only  two  farms  in  this  group. 


2  No  farms  in  this  group. 


FACTORS  FOR  SUCCESS  IN  DAIRY  FARMING 


277 


238.    Relation  of  Capital  to  Amount  of  Stock  Kept.     The 

amount  of  capital  must  also  be  considered  in  determining 
how  many  cows  to  keep.  Farmers  who  are  short  of  capital 
usually  keep  less  stock  than  do  those  who  have  more  capital. 

TAHLE  45.  —  RELATION  OF  CAPITAL  AND  CASH  CROPS  TO  PROFITS. 
578  FARMS,  LIVINGSTON  COUNTY,  NEW  YORK 


Pi  it  CENT  OF  RECEIPTS  FROM  CROPS 

CAPITAL 

$5000  or  less 

$5001- 
$15,000 

Over  $15,000 

20  •  >r  less 

Labor  Income 

$253 
181 
256 
424 
231 

Labor  Income 

$399 
411 
624 
623 
497 

Labor  Income 

$1000 
1399 
1038 
1194 
473 

21-  tO      

41-70      
71-90                               .     . 

Ov.r  90  

Table  45  shows  that  with  small  capital  those  who  depend 
largely  on  cash  crops  make  the  most,  while  with  larger 
capital  those  who  derive  more  of  their  money  from  live- 
stock are  doing  best.  The  exact  capital  groups  will  vary 
with  different  land  values,  but  the  principle  is  universal,  that 
one  who  is  short  of  capital  should  keep  less  stock  than  one 
who  has  more  money.  This  is  as  one  would  expect.  Live- 
stock represents  added  capital  after  one  has  bought  and 
equipped  his  farm.  If  one  is  short  of  money,  the  absolutely 
essential  things  are  land,  machinery,  and  horses.  One  may 
get  along  without  live-stock,  but  one  cannot  farm  without 
land  and  equipment.  The  majority  of  farmers  understand 
this  principle.  When  they  get  more  money,  they  increase 
the  amount  and  improve  the  quality  of  their  live-stock. 

For  the  young  man  with  small  capital  it  often  pays  to 
gradually  work  into  pure-bred  cattle.     One  can  begin  with 


278 


DAIRY  FARMING 


a  few  moderate-priced  pure-breds  and,  with  a  good  bull, 
can  gradually  develop  a  good  herd.  Ordinary  pure-breds 
can  be  improved  just  as  grade  cows  can  be  improved.  The 
advantage  of  the  pure-breds  is  that  after  one  has  them  im- 
proved, they  are  in  greater  demand  for  breeding  purposes 
because  they  are  recorded. 

239.  Acres  per  Animal  Unit.  Another  way  of  comparing 
farms  is  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  acres  of  crops  grown 
per  animal  unit  kept.  Results  for  one  dairy  region  in  New 
York  are  given  in  Table  46.  The  amount  of  stock  that  it 
pays  to  keep,  of  course,  depends  on  the  returns  that  one  gets 
from  it.  With  very  poor  returns,  very  little  stock  should 
be  kept.  The  better  the  returns,  the  more  heavily  the 
place  should  be  stocked.  With  good  stock  in  the  region 
here  mentioned,  it  pays  best  to  have  an  animal  unit  other 
than  horses  for  each  3  to  4  acres  of  crops.  The  exact  amount 
that  it  pays  to  keep  will  of  course  vary  with  different  regions 
and  on  different  farms,  but  nearly  always  it  is  best  to  have 
the  place  moderately  well  stocked  rather  than  go  to  either 
extreme. 


TABLE  46.  —  RELATION  OF  ACRES  OF  CROPS  PER  ANIMAL  AND 
RECEIPTS  PER  ANIMAL  UNIT  TO  LABOR  INCOME.  670  FARMS, 
JEFFERSON  COUNTY,  NEW  YORK 


ACRES  OP  CROPS  PER  ANIMAL  UNIT 

RECEIPTS    FOR    EACH  ANIMAL.   UNIT  EX- 
CEPT HORSES 

$50  or  less 

$51-$75 

Over  $75 

1  0-2  0                        

Labor  Income 

$210 
264 
314 

378 

Labor  Income 

$649 
680 
763 

824 

Labor  Income 

$    895 
971 
1053 
914 

2  1-3.0    

3  1-40 

Over  4  0 

FACTORS  FOR  SUCCESS  IN  DAIRY  FARMING 


279 


240.  Reasons  for  Larger  Profits  on  Diversified  Farms. 
There  are  many  reasons  why  it  does  not  pay  to  go  to  the 
extreme  either  way.  Ordinarily  a  man  can  raise  feed  for 
more  cows  than  he  can  milk.  If  each  man  milks  10  to  15 


Hcurs 


Distribution  Man  labor 


800 


400 


Cattle 
Horses 
Manure 
Potatoes,  1912 
Potatoes,  1913 


Alfalfa,  1914 
Cabbage 
'Poultry 
Farm 
Personal 
Equipment 


FCG.  78.  —  Distribution  of  man  labor  on  a  highly  successful  diversified 
dairy  farm,  that  kept  42  cows,  1  bull,  10  heifers,  and  9  horses.  The  crops 
raised  were  potatoes  11  acres,  corn  for  silo  19  acres,  oats  44  acres,  hay 
102  acres,  and  cabbage  7  acres,  besides  starting  crops  for  the  next  year. 
The  cabbages,  potatoes,  and  some  of  the  hay  were  sold  for  more  than  enough 
to  pay  the  entire  feed  and  labor  bills. 

cows,  he  can  raise  the  hay  and  silage  for  these  cows  and  part 
of  the  grain,  and  in  addition  will  have  time  to  raise  hay,  grain, 
potatoes,  cabbage,  or  other  crops  for  sale.  If  the  cows  are 
so  poor,  or  prices  of  the  product  so  low,  that  the  cows  do  not 
pay  a  good  price  for  their  feed,  it  is  of  vital  importance  that 


280  DAIRY  FARMING 

cash  crops  be  raised.  Even  if  the  cows  are  highly  profitable,  it 
may  still  pay  to  raise  crops  for  sale,  because  these  crops  can 
be  raised  at  very  little  additional  cost.  It  might  be  suggested 
that  more  cows  be  kept  to  eat  the  additional  crops,  but  this 
calls  for  more  men,  who  in  turn  can  raise  additional  crops. 

In  regions  where  cash  crops  are  not  raised,  the  women 
usually  help  with  the  milking  because  the  farmer  can  raise 
feed  for  more  cows  than  he  can  milk,  and  it  does  not  pay  to 
keep  a  hired  man  unless  there  is  full  work  for  him.  Women 
can  milk  and  do  housework  between  milkings.  If  the 
region  is  well  adapted  to  crops,  it  pays  better  to  employ  men 
and  have  them  do  farm  work  between  milkings.  Figure  78, 
page  279,  shows  the  distribution  of  labor  on  a  very  success- 
ful diversified  dairy  farm.  The  owners  of  this  farm  have 
followed  the  same  system  for  three  generations  and  have 
always  been  successful. 

If  a  farm  is  too  heavily  stocked,  much  feed  will  have  to  be 
purchased  in  a  poor  year  or  some  of  the  stock  must  be  sold. 
In  such  years  feed  is  likely  to  be  very  high  and  stock  cheap, 
so  that  whatever  one  does  he  is  likely  to  lose. 

If  a  farm  is  too  heavily  stocked,  the  returns  per  ton  of 
manure  used  will  be  low.  The  value  of  manure  depends  on 
how  heavily  it  is  applied.  A  light  application  usually  gives 
better  returns  per  ton  of  manure  than  does  a  heavy  applica- 
tion, as  shown  on  page  235. 

If  one  goes  to  the  other  extreme  and  keeps  no  animals  or 
too  few  animals,  he  will  not  have  a  full  year's  work.  Animals 
help  to  provide  winter  work,  they  provide  work  night  and 
morning  when  the  days  are  too  short  to  allow  a  full  day  of  field 
work.  Notice  how  little  winter  work  there  would  be  for  the 
farm  shown  in  figure  78  if  there  were  no  cows  and  no  manure 
hauling. 


FACTORS  FOR  SUCCESS  IN  DAIRY  FARMING  281 

]\  lost  farms  have  a  considerable  amount  of  low-grade 
hay  mixed  hay,  and  other  products  that  do  not  have  much 
market  value  or  that  are  too  bulky  to  pay  to  sell.  At  least 
enough  stock  should  be  kept  to  make  use  of  these  low-grade 
products.  On  many  farms  there  is  some  land  that  will  not 
pay  for  farming,  but  that  will  bring  some  income  as  pasture. 
Fanners  who  find  cash  crops  very  profitable  often  tend  to 
keep  too  little  live-stock. 

The  more  money  one  has  and  the  more  profitable  his 
animals  are,  the  nearer  he  should  come  to  exclusive  stock 
f an  i  ling,  but  it  usually  pays  to  sell  at  least  one  cash  crop. 
In  he  corn-belt,  corn  marketed  through  the  hog  takes  the 
pla(  e  of  a  cash  crop.  When  little  money  is  available  and 
when  stock  pays  poorly,  one  should  keep  fewer  animals,  but 
it  usually  pays  to  produce  at  least  one  kind  of  animal  or 
animal  product.  It  is  desirable  that  a  farm  have  two  to 
foui  important  products  for  sale,  and  usually  at  least  one 
should  be  an  animal  product,  and  at  least  one  a  cash 
crop. 

SOME  SUCCESSFUL  DAIRY  FARMS 

241.  A  Successful  Dairy  and  Hog  Farm  in  Iowa.  One 
can  learn  much  by  a  study  of  successful  farms,  provided  he 
is  sure  that  the  farm  he  is  studying  is  really  successful.  A 
farm  is  a  financial  success  when  it  pays  interest  on  the 
capital  invested  and  pays  good  wages  to  the  operator.  Some- 
times unimportant  peculiarities  of  the  farm  are  erroneously 
considered  the  cause  of  success.  A  systematic  study  of  a 
number  of  farms  will  help  to  avoid  this  error.  The  record 
here  given  for  an  Iowa  farm  shows  one  of  the  best  types 
of  dairy  farming  for  the  corn-belt.  (Data  furnished  by 
Professor  H.  B.  Hunger,  Iowa  State  College.) 


282 


DAIRY  FARMING 


CAPITAL  INVESTED  IN  THE  FARM  BUSINESS 


160  acres  land      .                                   . 

April  1,  1913 

$32,000 

April  1,  1914 

$32000 

Machinery  and  tools     

715 

764 

18  cows  4  heifers  2  calves 

2000 

1  bull      

175 

175 

17  cows,  2  heifers,  11  calves        .... 
8  horses  2  colts   . 

1340 

2440 

7  horses,  3  colts   

1360 

5  ewes    

35 

18  brood  sows,  26  other  hogs  and  pigs     . 
19  brood  sows,  40  other  hogs  and  pigs     . 
100  chickens    . 

630 
50 

715 
50 

Feed  and  supplies     

1079 

1047 

Cash  to  run  farm      

100 

100 

$38,124 

$38,651 

CROPS  GROWN  1913 


CROP 

ACRES 

TOTAL  YIELD 

AMOUNT 
SOLD 

AMOUNT 
RECEIVED 

Corn    

44 

1990  bu. 

150 

$95 

Corn  for  silo      .... 
Oats                    .... 

11 

28 

128  tons 
1540  bu 

600 

198 

Hay     

15 

19  tons 

In  addition,  there  were  45  acres  of  rotated  pasture  and 
17  acres  of  farmstead  roads  and  waste  land.  Corn  is  raised 
for  two  years,  followed  by  oats  in  which  grass  is  seeded.  The 
hay  is  left  down  two  years,  part  for  hay  and  part  for  pasture. 

RECEIPTS 

3939  Ib.  butter-fat  @  33^,  skim-milk  returned    .     . 
12  cattle  sold  and  6  increase  of  inventory       .     .     . 

Eggs 

85  hogs  sold  and  15  increase  of  inventory       .     .     . 

Horses  sold  and  increase  of  inventory 

150  bushels  corn 

600  bushels  oats 

Outside  labor 

Machine  work 


$1300 
755 
30 
1645 
138 
95 
198 
9 
30 
$4200 


FACTORS  FOR  SUCCESS  IN  DAIRY  FARMING  283 

• 
FARM  EXPENSES 

1  man  12  months $    344 

1  man  1  month 40 

Machinery  and  repairs  cost  above  increase  value    .     .  81 

G  rain  feed 69 

Horseshoeing 10 

Breeding  fees 20 

Veterinary 20 

Sfeds         * 47 

Twine 11 

Tureshing 31 

ft! achine  work  hired 13 

F'lel  for  farm  use 5 

Insurance 25 

Taxes        110 

Si leep  sold  for  less  than  inventory  value 7 

Decrease  in  feed  on  hand 32 

$    865 

SUM  MARY 

Receipts $4200 

Expenses 865 

Ircome  from  capital  and  operator's  labor       ....  $  3335 

Ir  terest  on  average  capital  $38,388  at  5%     .     .     .     .  1919 

L;ibor  income $  1416 

EFFICIENCY  FACTORS 
Size 

Acres  160 

Acres  crops  98 

Number  cows  17| 

Number  brood  sows  18| 

Number  men  2T1Z 

Number  work  horses  7| 

Number  of  productive  man  work  units  620 

Number  of  productive  horse  work  units  435 

Production 

Corn  45  bushels  per  acre 

Oats  55  bushels  per  acre 

Hay  1-J  tons  per  acre 

Receipts  per  cow  from  butter-fat  $74 

Receipts  per  cattle  unit  $88 

Pigs  raised  per  sow  5.4 

Diversity 

Three  main  sources  of  income  —  milk,  cattle,  and  hogs 


284  DAIRY  FARMING 

Efficiency  in  use  of  labor 
Crop  acres  per  man  47 
Crop  acres  per  horse  13 
Work  units  per  man  298 
Work  units  per  horse  58 

Fertility 

Acres  of  crops,  including  rotated  pasture  per  animal  unit  3.6 

The  farm  represents  a  good-sized  business.  It  provides  full 
work  for  two  men  (one  besides  the  owner)  and  has  enough  crops 
to  justify  the  use  of  four-horse  teams  and  good  machinery. 

The  crop  yields  are  excellent.  The  returns  per  cow  are 
very  good  for  milk  sold  to  a  creamery.  The  $74  per  cow 
represents  a  production  of  225  pounds  of  butter-fat  per  cow 
in  addition  to  new  milk  for  home  use  and  for  calves.  The 
number  of  pigs  per  sow  is  good. 

The  farm  has  three  important  products,  —  milk,  cattle, 
and  hogs.  The  corn  raised  for  hog  feed  takes  the  place  of 
the  cash  crops  that  are  raised  by  the  farm  described  on  page 
285 .  The  farmer  has  for  five  years  used  a  pure-bred  bull  and 
now  has  ten  pure-bred  cows,  so  that  cattle  are  a  third  im- 
portant source  of  income. 

The  acres  of  crops  raised  per  man  and  work  units  per  man 
are  very  good.  The  efficiency  in  the  use  of  horses  is  only 
fair.  It  is  possible  that  the  farm  might  pay  a  little  better 
if  fewer  horses  were  kept. 

In  short,  the  farm  is  a  good-sized  business,  has  good  crops, 
good  cows,  good  diversity,  and  uses  man  labor  efficiently,  and 
the  place  is  carrying  enough  stock  so  that  there  is  a  good 
supply  of  manure. 

The  farmer  had  a  common  school  education.  He  worked 
as  a  hired  man  five  years,  then  as  tenant  five  years,  after 
which  he  bought  this  farm  and  has  been  operating  it  four 
years.  The  efficiency  factors  given  above  when  compared 


FACTORS  FOR  SUCCESS  IN  DAIRY  FARMING 


285 


with  the  averages  for  farms  given  in  preceding  tables,  show 
how  well  the  farm  is  managed. 

242.  A  Successful  Diversified  Dairy  Farm  in  New  York. 
Thi,-  farm  is  typical  of  the  best  general  type  of  dairy  farming 
for  those  portions  of  the  Eastern  States  where  intensive 
casl  crops  combine  well  with  dairying. 

CAPITAL  INVESTED  IN  THE  FARM  BUSINESS 


BEGINNING  OF   YEAR 

END  OP  YEAR 

211   icres  of  land    ...          ... 

$14000 

$14000 

Ma<  hinery  and  tools  
31  <•  >ws 

400 
2480 

400 

2480 

2  caives    .                     
3  calves    ...     
Ibull                   

20 

45 

30 
80 

5  horses    
25  sieep   38  lambs 

500 
365 

500 

28  sieep,  43  lambs      

411 

75  dickens 

50 

50 

Feer  and  supplies  .          ... 

350 

350 

Cash  to  run  farm  

200 

200 

$18410 

$18501 

CROPS  GROWN 


CROP 

ACRES 

TOTAL  YIELD 

AMOUNT 
SOLD 

AMOUNT 
RECEIVED 

Corn  for  silo    .... 

Wheat 

10 
11 

120  tons 
330  bu 

310  bu 

$264 

Oats       

26 

1006  bu. 

Timothy  and  clover  hay 
Potatoes     

55 
12 

83  tons 
2400  bu. 

2  tons 
2025  bu. 

25 
1050 

Apples         
Cabbage     

2 
1 

40000  Ib. 

36000  Ib. 

145 

In  addition  to  the  above  there  were  85  acres  of  permanent 
pasture  and  9  acres  of  woods,  farmstead,  waste  land,  etc. 


286  DAIRY  FARMING 

RECEIPTS 

264,837  Ib.  milk $3449 

Calves  sold  and  increase  inventory 290 

Sheep,  lambs,  and  wool 204 

Eggs 106 

310  bu.  wheat 264 

2  tons  hay 25 

2025  bu.  potatoes 1050 

Apples 145 

$5533 

FARM   EXPENSES 

Labor $1100 

Feed 511 

Fertilizer 100 

Seeds 53 

Other  expenses 260 

$2024 

SUMMARY 

Receipts $5533 

Expenses 2024 

Income  from  capital  and  operator's  labor  ....  3509 

Interest  on  average  capital  $18,455  @  5%  .     .     .     .  923 

Labor  income 2586 

EFFICIENCY  FACTORS 
Size 

Acres  211 

Acres  of  crops  117 

Number  of  cows  31 

Number  of  men  3f 

Number  of  work  horses  5 

Number  units  productive  man  work  835 

Number  units  productive  horse  work  431 
Production 

Corn  12  tons 

Potatoes  200  bu. 

Oats  41  bu. 

Wheat  30  bu. 

Milk  sold  per  cow  8543  Ib. 

Receipt  per  cow  from  milk  $111 

Receipt  per  cattle  unit  $112 

Lambs  raised  per  ewe  1.5 

Receipts  per  ewe  $8.16 


FACTORS  FOR  SUCCESS  IN  DAIRY  FARMING  287 

• 
Diversity 

Two  main  sources  of  income  —  milk  and  potatoes  —  several 
other  important  things. 

Efficiency  in  use  of  labor 

Crop  acres  per  man 32 

Crop  acres  per  horse        23 

Work  units  per  man        228 

Work  units  per  horse 86 

Futility 

Acres  of  crops  per  animal  unit 2.6 

Fertilizers  produced  per  acre  of  crops    .     .     .         $.85 

Although  this  farm  is  a  long  distance  from  the  preceding 
one  its  success  has  been  due  to  the  same  factors.  The  farm 
is  a  good-sized  business,  the  cows  and  crops  are  good,  the 
farm  combines  dairying  with  cash  crops.  The  only  differ- 
ence is  that  the  Iowa  farm  marketed  its  corn  crop  through 
hogs,  while  the  New  York  farm  raised  a  human  food  crop  for 
direct  sale.  Instead  of  keeping  hogs  to  eat  up  extra  grain, 
the  New  York  farm  depends  to  a  large  extent  on  purchased 
grain.  Each  farm  followed  the  best  type  of  farming  for  its 
conditions.  Because  of  the  size  and  diversity  of  the  business 
each  man  is  accomplishing  a  large  amount.  The  production 
per  cow  on  this  farm  is  unusually  good.  The  farmer  has  been 
in  the  dairy  business  for  many  years  and  now  has  a  herd  of 
high  grade  and  pure-bred  Holsteins.  The  farmer  began  as 
a  tenant  and  worked  this  farm  many  years  on  shares.  Be- 
cause of  his  good-sized  diversified  business,  with  good  pro- 
duction, he  was  able  to  save  money  and  buy  the  farm. 

QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS 

1.  What  is  the  labor  income  for  a  farm  on  which  the  expenses 
amounted  to  $1028,  the  receipts  $2524,  and  on  which  the  capital 
was  $20,247  ? 

2.  For  a  dairy  farm  in  your  region  find  the  total  area,  area  in 
each  crop,  number  of  each  kind  of  animals,  and  number  of  men  em- 


288  DAIRY  FARMING 

ployed.  Calculate  the  units  of  productive  man  and  horse  work. 
Calculate  the  area  of  crops  and  units  of  productive  work  per  man  and 
per  horse.  Compare  with  farms  of  the  same  area  in  Tables  33-40. 
If  each  student  bases  his  report  on  'a  different  farm,  the  results  may 
be  compared. 

3.  To  how  many  animal  units  is  the  stock  on  the  above  farm 
equal?     (See  p.  218.)     How  many  acres  of  crops  per  animal  unit? 
About  what  proportion  of  the  manure  is  produced  in  the  barn. 
How  many  tons  would  this  probably  make  per  year  if  it  is  all  saved  ? 
If  the  manure  is  well  cared  for,  and  if  eight  tons  are  applied  per  acre, 
how  many  years  would  it  take  to  cover  the  entire  farm? 

4.  What  is  the  value  of  the  barns  on  the  above  farm?     How 
much  is  this  per  animal  unit?     Compare  with  Table  39. 

5.  Are  conditions  in  your  region  naturally  favorable  for  large 
or  for  small  breeds  of  dairy  cattle? 

6.  What  things  aside  from  dairy  products  are  commonly  sold 
from  dairy  farms  in  your  region  ? 

7.  As  an  average  for  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  year,  how 
many  animal  units  are  there  on  the  farm  described  on  page  281  ? 
How  many  on  the  farm  on  page  285? 

8.  Compare  the  farms  on  pages  242  and  244  as  to  size  of  business, 
crop  yields,  returns  per  cow,  work  units  per  man  and  horse,  and  in 
other  ways. 

9.  Compare  each  of  the  above  farms  as  to  efficiency  in  the  use 
of  men  and  horses  with  farms  of  the  same  area  in  Table  36. 

LABORATORY    EXERCISES 

36.  Record  of  a  Year's  Business  on  a  Farm.  Arrange  with 
some  dairy  farmer  to  allow  the  class  to  go  to  his  farm  and  study 
his  methods  and  obtain  a  record  of  his  business  for  the  past  year, 
using  Farmer's  Bulletin  661  for  taking  the  record.  Later  calculate 
the  labor  income  and  work,  the  efficiency  factors,  and  compare 
with  the  farms  described  on  pages  281  and  285.  What  are  the 
strong  points  and  what  are  the  weak  points  of  the  farm? 

Each  student  should  make  a  similar  record  and  study  of  the  farm 
on  which  he  lives. 

COLLATERAL    READING 

A  Method  of  Analyzing  the  Farm  Business,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Farmers'  Bulletin  661. 

Farm  Management,  G.  F.  Warren,  pp.  535-565. 


APPENDIX 

AI 'DRESSES  OF  CATTLE  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATIONS 

A  nerican  Aberdeen-Angus  Breeders'  Association,  Charles  Gray, 
Sec.,  Chicago,  111. 

A  -rshire  Breeders'  Association,  C.  M.  Winslow,  Sec.,  Brandon, 
Vt. 

B  -own  Swiss  Cattle  Breeders'  Association,  Ira  Inman,  Sec., 
Belo  I,  Wis. 

Dutch  Belted  Cattle  Association  of  America,  E.  J.  Kir  by,  Sec., 
Covt  rt,  Mich. 

A  nerican  Galloway  Breeders'  Association,  R.  W.  Brown,  Sec., 
Carrollton,  Mo. 

T'le  American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club,  William  H.  Caldwell,  Sec., 
Peteiboro,  N.H. 

A  nerican  Hereford  Cattle  Breeders'  Association,  R.  J.  Kinzer 
Sec.,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

The  Holstein-Friesian  Association  of  America,  F.  L.  Houghton, 
Sec.,  Brattleboro,  Vt. 

The  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club,  R.  M.  Gow,  Sec.,  324  West 
23d  St.,  New  York  City. 

Rod  Polled  Cattle  Club  of  America,  H.  A.  Martin,  Sec.,  Gotham, 
Wis. 

American  Shorthorn  Breeders'  Association,  F.  W.  Harding,  Sec., 
Chicago,  111. 

The  Polled  Durham  Breeders'  Association,  J.  H.  Martz,  Sec., 
Greenville,  O. 


289 


290  APPENDIX 

SCALE    OF   POINTS   FOR  JERSEY   COW 
Adopted  by  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club,  1913 

DAIRY  TEMPERAMENT  AND  CONSTITUTION 

Head,  7. 

A.  Medium  size,  lean ;  face  dished ;  broad  between  eyes ; 

horns  medium  size,  incurving 3 

B.  Eyes  full  and  placid ;   ears  medium  size,  fine,  carried 

alert ;    muzzle  broad,  with  wide  open  nostrils  and 
muscular  lips,  jaw  strong    .....    Y    .     .    ?    *     4 

Neck,  4. 

Thin,  rather  long,  with  clean  throat,  neatly  joined  to 
head  and  shoulders 4 

Body,  37. 

A.  Shoulders  light,  good  distance  through  from  point  to 

point,  but  thin  at  withers ;   chest  deep  and  full  be- 
tween and  just  back  of  fore  legs       ......         5 

B.  Ribs  amply  sprung  and  wide  apart,  giving  wedge 

shape,  with  deep,  large  abdomen,  firmly  held  up, 
with  strong  muscular  development       10 

C.  Back  straight  and  strong,  with  prominent  spinal  pro- 

cesses ;   loins  broad  and  strong 5 

D.  Rump  long  to  tail-setting,  and  level  from  hip  bones 

to  rump  bones 6 

E.  Hip-bones  high  and  wide  apart     ,  .     . :  .     .     .     .     ,         3 

F.  Thighs  flat  and  wide  apart,  giving  ample  room  for 

udder .     .^  .     .     .         3 

G.  Legs  proportionate  to  size  and  of  fine  quality,  well 

apart,  with  good  feet,  and  not  to  weave  or  cross  in 

walking 2 

H.   Hide  loose  and  mellow 2 

7.     Tail  thin,  long,  with  good  switch,  not  coarse  at  setting- 
on        *     ....         1 

Udder,  26. 

A.  Large  size,  flexible,  and  not  fleshy 6 

B.  Broad,  level  or  spherical,  not  deeply  cut  between 

teats 4 

C.  Fore  udder  full  and  well  rounded,  running  well  for- 

ward of  front  teats 10 

Carry  forward  68 


APPENDIX  291 

» 

Brought  forward  68 
D.    Rear  udder  well  rounded,  and  well  out  and  up  be- 
hind             6 

Teat*,  8. 

Of  good  and  uniform  length  and  size,  regularly  placed     .         8 
MiU-  Veins,  4. 

Large,   long,    tortuous,  and  elastic,  entering  large  and 

numerous  orifices    ...... 4 

Size.  4. 

Mature  cows,  800  to  1000  pounds 4 

Gen\  rat  Appearance,  10. 

A.  symmetrical  balancing  of  all  the  parts,  and  a  propor- 
tioning of  parts  to  each  other,  depending  on  size  of  animal, 
with  the  general  appearance  of  a  high-class  animal,  with 
capacity  for  food  and  productiveness  at  pail  .  .  .  10 

100 

SCALE    OF   POINTS  FOR   AYRSHIRE    COW 

Adopted  by  Ayrshire  Breeders'  Association,  1906 

Head,  10. 

Forehead  —  Broad  and  clearly  defined 1 

Horns  —  Wide  set  on  and  inclining  upward 1 

Pace  —  Of  medium  length,   slightly  dished,   clean-cut, 

showing  veins 2 

Muzzle  —  Broad  and  strong  without  coarseness,  nostrils 

large 1 

Jaws  —  Wide  at  the  base  and  strong 1 

Eyes  —  Full  and  bright  with  placid  expression        ...         3 
Ears  —  Of  medium  size  and  fine,  carried  alert    ....         1 
Neck,  3. 

Pine  throughout,  throat  clean,  neatly  joined  to  head  and 
shoulders,  of  good  length,  moderately  thin,  nearly  free 

from  loose  skin,  elegant  in  bearing 3 

Fore  Quarters,  10. 

Shoulders  —  Light,   good   distance   through  from  point 
to  point,  but  sharp  at  withers,  smoothly  blending  into 

body 2 

Chest  —  Low,  deep,  and  full  between  and  back  of  fore- 
legs        _6 

Carry  forward  21 


292  APPENDIX 

Brought  forward  21 

Brisket  —  Light 1 

Legs  and  Feet  —  Legs  straight  and  short,  well  apart, 
shanks  fine  and  smooth,  joints  firm ;  feet  medium  size, 

round,  solid,  and  deep 1 

Body,  13. 

Back  —  Strong  and  straight,  chine  lean,  sharp,  and  open 

jointed 4 

Loin  —  Broad,  strong,  and  level .         2 

Ribs  —  Long,  broad,  wide  apart,  and  well  sprung       .     .         3 
Abdomen  —  Capacious,  deep,  firmly  held  up  with  strong 

muscular  development '.  3 

Flank  —  Thin  and  arching 1 

Hind  Quarters,  11. 

Rump  —  Wide,  level,  and  long  from  hooks  to  pin  bones, 

a  reasonable  pelvic  arch  allowed 3 

Hooks  — Wide  apart  and  not  projecting  above  back  nor 

unduly  overlaid  with  fat 2 

Pin  Bones  —  High  and  wide  apart 1 

Thighs  —  Thin,  long,  and  wide  apart 2 

Tail  —  Long,  fine,  set  on  a  level  with  the  back  ....         1 
Legs    and    Feet  —  Legs    strong,    short,    straight    when 
viewed  from  behind  and  set  well  apart ;    shanks  fine 
and  smooth,  joints  firm;    feet  medium  size,   round, 

solid,  and  deep 2 

Udder,  22. 

Long,    wide,     deep,    but    not    pendulous,    nor    fleshy ; . 
firmly  attached  to  the  body,  extending  well  up  behind 
and    far  forward ;    quarters   even ;    sole    nearly  level 
and    not  indented    between  teats,   udder  veins  well 

developed  and  plainly  visible 22 

Teats,  8. 

Evenly  placed,  distance  apart  from  side  to  side  equal  to 
half  the  breadth  of  udder,  from  back  to  front  equal  to 
one-third  the  length ;  length  1\  to  3|  inches,  thickness 
in  keeping  with  length,  hanging  perpendicular,  and  not 

tapering 8 

Mammary  Veins,  5. 

Large,   long,    tortuous,    branching,   and    entering    large 

orifices 5 

Carry  forward  82 


APPENDIX  293 

Brought  forward  82 

Escutcheon,  2. 

]  )istinctly  defined,  spreading  over  thighs  and  extending 

well  upward 2 

Color  2. 

I  ted  of  any  shade,  brown,  or  these  with  white ;  mahog- 
any and  white,  or  white  ;   each  color  distinctly  denned. 
(Brindle  markings  allowed,  but  not  desirable)  ....         2 
Cover  '.rig,  6. 

!•  kin  —  Of  medium  thickness,  mellow,  and  elastic    ...         3 

I  [air  —  Soft  and  fine 2 

Secretions  —  Oily,  of  rich  brown  or  yellow  color     ...         1 
Style.  4. 

Alert,  vigorous,  showing  strong  character,  temperament 

inclined  to  nervousness,  but  still  docile 4 

Weignt,  4. 

A /eight  at  maturity  not  less  than  one  thousand  pounds        4 

Total  100 


SCALE    OF   POINTS   FOR   GUERNSEY   COW 

Adopted  by  Guernsey  Cattle  Club 

Dairy  Temperament  Constitution,  38. 

( 'lean-cut,  lean  face  ;  strong,  sinewy  jaw ;  wide  muzzle 
with  wide-open  nostrils ;  full,  bright  eye  with  quiet 
and  gentle  expression ;  forehead  long  and  broad:  .  .  5 

Long,  thin  neck  with  strong  juncture  to  head ;  clean 
throat.  Backbone  rising  well  between  shoulder  blades  ; 
large  rugged  spinal  processes,  indicating  good  devel- 
opment of  the  spinal  cord 5 

Pelvis  arching  and  wide  ;  rump  long  ;  wide,  strong  struc- 
ture of  spine  at  setting  on  of  tail.  Long,  thin  tail  with 
good  switch.  Thin,  incurving  thighs 5 

Ribs  amply  and  fully  sprung  and  wide  apart,  giving  an 
open,  relaxed  conformation ;  thin  arching  flanks  .  .  5 

A.bdomen  large  and  deep,  with  strong  muscular  and  navel 
development,  indicative  of  capacity  and  vitality  .  .  15 

Hide  firm  yet  loose,  with  an  oily  feeling  and  texture,  but 

not  thick • 3 

Carry  forward  38 


294  APPENDIX 

Brought  forward  38 

Milking  Marks  Denoting  Quantity  of  Flow,  10. 

Escutcheon  wide  on  thighs ;  high  and  broad,  with  thighs 

oval 2 

Milk  veins  long,  crooked,  branching,  and  prominent,  with 

large  or  deep  wells 8 

Udder  Formation,  26. 

Udder  full  in  front 8 

Udder  full  and  well  up  behind 8 

Udder  of  large  size  and  capacity 4 

Teats  well  apart,  squarely  placed,  and  of  good  and  even 

size .     .     .         6 

Indicating  Color  of  Milk,  15. 

Skin  deep  yellow  in  ear,  on  end  of  bone  of  tail,  at  base  of 
horns,  on   udder,  teats,  and    body  generally.     Hoof, 

amber-colored    .     .     .     . 15 

Milking  Marks  Denoting  Quality  of  Flow,  6. 

Udder  showing  plenty  of  substance,  but  not  too  meaty  6 

Symmetry  and  Size,  5. 

Color  of  hair,  a  shade  of  fawn,  with  white  markings. 
Cream-colored  nose.   Horns  amber-colored,  small,  curved, 

and  not  coarse 3 

Size  for  the  breed :    mature  cows,  four  years  old  or  over 

about  1050  pounds 2 

100 

SCALE   OF   POINTS   FOR   HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN   COW 
Adopted  by  Holstein-Friesian  Association 

Head  —  Decidedly  feminine  in  appearance ;    fine  in  contour  2 

Forehead  —  Broad  between  the  eyes ;  dishing  ......  2 

Face  —  Of  medium  length ;  clean  and  trim  especially  under  the 

eyes,  showing  facial  veins  ;  the  bridge  of  the  nose  straight  2 

Muzzle  —  Broad  with  strong  lips 1 

Ears  —  Of  medium  size ;  of  fine  texture  ;  the  hair  plentiful  and 

soft ;  the  secretion  oily  and  abundant  ......  i  1 

Eyes  —  Large  ;  full ;  mild  ;  bright 2 

Horns  —  Small ;  tapering  finely  towards  the  tips ;  set  modera- 

ately  narrow  at  base ;  oval ;  inclining  forward ;  well  bent 

inward ;  of  fine  texture ;  in  appearance  waxy  .  .  .  .  1 

Carry  forward  11 


APPENDIX  295 

Brought  forward  11 

Neck  —  Long ;  fine  and  clean  at  juncture  with  the  head ;  free 

from  dewlap  ;    evenly  and  smoothly  joined  to  shoulders         4 

Shoulders  —  Slightly  lower  than  hips;     fine  and  even  over 

oops  ;  moderately  broad  and  full  at  sides        3 

Ches:  —  Of  moderate  depth  and  lowness ;  smooth  and  moder- 
ately full  in  the  brisket,  full  in  the  fore  flanks  (or  through 
fche  heart) 6 

Croi-s  —  Moderately  full 2 

Chit  e  —  Straight;     strong;     broadly  developed,  with  open 

vertebrae       6 

Barrel  —  Long ;  of  wedge  shape  ;  well  rounded  ;  with  a  large 
abdomen,  trimly  held  up  (in  judging  the  last  item  age 
must  be  considered)  7 

Loif  and  Hips  —  Broad ;  level  or  nearly  level  between  the 
hook  bones  ;  level  and  strong  laterally  ;  spreading  from 
chine  broadly  and  nearly  level ;  hook  bones  fairly  promi- 
nent    6 

Run  p  —  Long ;  high  ;  broad  with  roomy  pelvis  ;  nearly  level 
laterally;  comparatively  full  above  the  thurl;  carried 
out  straight  to  dropping  of  tail 6 

Thu  -I  —  High,  broad 3 

Quarters  —  Deep  ;  straight  behind  ;  twist  filled  with  develop- 
ment of  udder;  wide  and  moderately  full  at  the  sides  4 

Fla?<  ks  —  Deep  ;  comparatively  full 2 

Legs  —  Comparatively  short ;  clean  and  nearly  straight ;  wide 
apart ;  firmly  and  squarely  set  under  the  body ;  feet  of 
medium  size,  round,  solid,  and  deep 4 

Tail  —  Large  at  base,  the  setting  well  back ;  tapering  finely  to 
switch  ;  the  end  of  the  bone  reaching  to  hocks  or  below ; 
the  switch  full  2 

Hair  and  Handling  —  Hair  healthful  in  appearance ;  fine,  soft, 
and  furry;  the  skin  of  medium  thickness  and  loose; 
mellow  under  the  hand ;  the  secretions  oily,  abundant, 
and  of  a  rich  brown  or  yellow  color 8 

Mammary  Veins  —  Very  large ;  very  crooked  (age  must  be 
taken  into  consideration  in  judging  of  size  and  crooked- 
ness) ;  entering  very  large  or  numerous  orifices ;  double 
extension ;  with  special  developments,  such  as  branches, 

connections,  etc 10 

Carry  forward  84 


296 


APPENDIX 


Brought  forward 

Udder  and  Teats  —  Very  capacious ;  very  flexible  ;  quarters 
even ;  nearly  filling  the  space  in  the  rear  below  the  twist, 
extending  well  forward  in  front ;  broad  and  well  held  up 

Teats  —  Well  formed ;  wide  apart,  plump,  and  of  convenient 
size 

Escutcheon  —  Largest ;  finest .     .     . 

TABLE  47.  —  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  OF  DAIRY  PRODUCTS 


84 


12 

2 

2 

100 


YEAR  ENDING 
JUNE  30,  1912 

YEAR  ENDING 
JUNE  30,  1913 

YEAR  ENDING 
JUNE  30,  1914 

Amount 

Value 

Amount 

Value 

Amount 

Value 

Imports 
Butter,  pounds    . 
Cheese,  pounds 
Cream,  gallons    . 
Milk      .... 
Total      .     .     . 

Exports 
Butter,  pounds    . 
Cheese,  pounds 
Condensed   milk, 
pounds    .     .     . 
Other    milk    and 
cream     .     .     . 
Total  .     .     . 

1,025,668 
46,542,007 
1,120,427 

$237,154 
8,807,249 
923,779 
61,671 

1,162,253 
49,387,944 
1,247,083 

$304,094 
9,185,184 
1,068,109 
135,724 

7,842,022 
63,784,313 
1,773,152 

$1,753,461 
11,010,693 
1,549,549 
1,089,440 

6,092,235 
6,337,560 

20,642,738 

10,029,853 

1,468,432 
898,035 

1,651,879 
244,913 

3,585,600 
2,599,058 

16,525,918 

10,693,107 

872,804 
441,186 

1,432,848 
474,055 

3,693,597 
2,427,577 

16,209,082 

15,403,143 

877,453 
414,124 

1,341,140 
333,217 

4,263,259 

3,220,893 

2,965,934 

NOTES  FOR  TABLE  48,  ON  PAGE  297 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1913,  p.  487. 
No  state  standards. 
Federal  rulings  adopted. 
Percentage  of  fat  based  on  total  solids. 
Fat,  7.8  per  cent ;    total  solids  plus  fat,  34.3  per  cent. 
For  butter  making,  25  per  cent  fat. 

This  standard  for  sweetened  condensed  milk:     "Evaporated  milk," 
solids,  24  per  cent ;   fat,  7.8  per  cent. 

8  No  report ;  1910  standard  given. 

9  By  weight. 

10  Not  more  than  0.2  per  cent  "  filler." 

11  Must  correspond  to  11.5  per  cent  solids  in  crude  milk. 

12  If  artifically  colored. 

13  Must  correspond  to  12  per  cent  solids  in  crude  milk. 

•  14  23-24  per  cent  solids,  7.9  per  cent  fat ;  24-25  per  cent  solids,  7.8  per 
cent  fat ;  25-26  per  cent  solids,  7.7  per  cent  fat ;  26  per  cent  solids,  7.6  per 
cent  fat. 

16  In  May  and  June,  solids  12  per  cent. 

16  Fat,  27.5  per  cent  of  total  solids. 


APPENDIX  297 

TABLE  48.  —  LEGAL  STANDARDS  FOB  DAIRY  PRODUCTS1 


f 

§ 

•fc 

MILK 

W 

X 

CONDENSED 
MILK 

K  ^ 

li 

% 

s 

a 

P§  ^ 

X    £r 

X  H 

STATE 

a 

i 

u 

o  1 

< 

U  £ 

3 

p 

"""  D3 

a  J 

B  « 

to 

o 

ffl 

P^U 

hnCi- 

k^fe- 

» 

! 

33 

il 

_    03 

3| 

£1 

o  o 
02  a 

03 

si 

£ 

1 

03 
P&l 

H£ 

1 

03 

1 

Per 

Per 

Per  1  Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent  Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Alal  ama  2  .      .     .     . 

Ariz  ma  2     .     .     .     . 

Ark:  nsas  3  . 

Call  ornia   .... 

11.5 

8.5 

3.0 

8.8 

18.0 

80.0 

504 

(5) 

(5) 

12 

Coli  rado     .... 

3.0 

16.06 

80.0 

504 

14 

12 

Co     iccticut     . 

11.75 

8.5 

3.25 

16.0 

Del:  ware  2  .     .      .      . 

Dis   'ict  of  Columbia 

12.5 

9.0 

3.5 

9.3 

20.0 

83.0 

Flo.  da        .... 

11.75 

8.5 

3.25 

9.25 

18.0 

82.5 

50  4 

28.0  7 

7.77 

12 

Geo  gia        .... 

11.75 

8.5 

3.25 

9.25 

18.0 

82.5 

504   28.0 

27.66  4 

14 

12 

Havaii*      .... 

11.5 

8.5 

3.0 

!28.0 

7.7 

Ida!  o      

11.2 

8.0 

3.2 

9.3 

18.0 

82.5 

30 

(5) 

14 

12 

Illii  )is   .      .     .     .     . 

11.5 

8.5 

3.0 

9.25 

18.0 

82.5 

504 

(5) 

(5) 

>8 

In  1  ma  

8.5 

3.25 

9.25 

18.0 

82.5 

SO4 

28.0 

27.54 

8 

low   , 

12  0 

3.0 

16.0 

on  O  9 

12 

1L75 

$.5 

3.25 

9.25 

18.0  6  80.0 

504 

(5) 

(5) 

14 

12 

Kei    ucky    '.'.'] 

12.5 

8.5 

3.25 

9  25 

18.0 

82.5' 

SO* 

28.0 

27.66  4 

14 

12 

Lou  siana    .... 

8.5 

3.5 

8.0 

18.0 

(i>) 

fo\ 

Maiie     

11.75 

8.5 

3.25 

18.0 

Ma  \'Iand 

12.5 

3.5 

9.25 

18.0 

(5) 

(&) 

4 

6 

Ma.-sachusetts 

12.15 

3.35 

9.3 

15.0 

Mic  ligan    .... 

12.5 

3.0 

12 

Min  lesota        .     . 

13.0 

9.75 

3.25 

20.0 

454 

fb\ 

fb\ 

12 

Mis-  issippi  2     . 

Mis-ouri      .... 

12.0 

8.75 

3.25 

9.25 

18.0 

82.5 

SO4 

28.0 

7.76 

14 

Moi  tana     .... 

11.75 

8.5 

3.25 

20.0     82.5 

SO4 

14 

Nebraska    .... 

3.0 

18.0 

14 

12 

New  Hampshire 

12.0 

8.5 

18.0     80.0 

14  10 

New  Jersey      .     . 

11.5 

3.0 

16.0 

New   Mexico  - 

Ne      York         .      .      . 

11.5 

3.0 

18.0 

(ii) 

25.04 

Ne   ada        .     .     .     .  i    11.75 

8.5 

3.25 

9.25 

18.0     82.5 

50  4  26.5 

7.8 

14 

No  ch  Carolina    .      .      11.5 

8.5 

3.25 

9.25 

18.0     82.5 

504  28.0 

27.54 

14 

12 

No  Gh  Dakota      .     .  j    12.0 

9.0 

3.0 

15.0 

14 

Oh  ,       

12.0 

3.0 

180.012 

(13) 

25.04 

Oklahoma         .      .      . 

12.51 

9.5 

3.0 

18.0    181.5 

14 

Oregon         .... 

9.0 

3.2 

20.0 

30 

(14) 

(14) 

12 

Pennsylvania 

12.0 

3.25 

18.0 

32 

8 

6 

Por  ,o  Rico       .      .      . 

12.0 

9.0 

3.0 

Rhode  Island        .   .  . 

12.0 

2.5 

Souih  Carolina  2  . 

South  Dakota       .     . 

8.5 

3.25 

9.25 

18.0 

80.0 

504 

28.0 

27.54 

14 

]2 

Tennessee 

8.5 

3.50 

Texas      .     . 

8.5 

3.25 

Utah       ..... 

12.0 

9.0 

3.2 

9.0 

18.0 

80.0 

SO4 

(5) 

(5) 

14 

12 

Vermont      .... 

12.5  »  9.25 

Virginia        .      .      .      .  i    11.75 

8.5 

3.25 

9.25 

18.0 

82.5 

(5) 

(5) 

8 

Washington     .      .      .  i    12.0 

8.75 

3.25 

9.3 

18.0 

30 

West  Virginia  2     .     . 

Wisconsin         ... 

8.5 

3.0 

9.0 

18.0 

82.5 

SO4 

28.0 

8.0 

14 

Wyoming    .... 

8.5 

3.25 

9.25 

18.0 

82.5 

SO4 

28.0 

(16) 

14 

12 

298 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  49.  —  AVERAGE   COMPOSITION  OP  MILK  AND  ITS 
PRODUCTS 


WATER 

ASH 

PROTEIN 

SUGAR 

FAT 

Skim-milk,  gravity  .     . 
Skim-milk,  separator  . 
Buttermilk     .... 
Whey    . 

89.88 

90.60 
91.24 
9304 

.77 
.78 
.70 
42 

3.54 
3.57 
3.50 
084 

4.91 
4.95 
4.00 
534 

0.90 
0.10 
0.56 
036 

TABLE  50.  —  AVERAGE  WEIGHTS 


PRODUCT 


WEIGHT  IN  POUNDS  PER  QUART 


Average  milk 
20  per  cent  cream 
25  per  cent  cream 
30  per  cent  cream 
40  per  cent  cream 
50  per  cent  cream 


2.15 
2.10 
2.09 
2.08 
2.01 
1.97 


THE  HAECKER  FEEDING  STANDARD 
The  feeding  standard  formulated  by  Prof.  T.  L.  Haecker 
of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  2  has  found  consider- 
able favor  especially  in  the  Middle  West.  This  standard  is 
based  upon  a  long  series  of  investigations  concerning  the 
requirements  for  maintenance  and  for  the  production  of 
milk  of  varying  richness.  This  standard  has  recently  been 
modified  by  Savage  in  the  direction  of  simplicity  in  form  and 
some  increase  in  the  nutrients. 

This  standard  makes  use  of  the  total  digestible  nutrients 
and  does  not  exclude  the  amide  nitrogen  as  is  done  by  Armsby. 

1  Calculated  from  the  specific  gravity  of  cream  as  given  by  Farrington 
and  Woll,  Testing  Milk  and  its  Products,  20th  edition,  p.  77. 

2  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletins  69,  79,  130,  140. 


APPENDIX 


299 


This  accounts  mostly  for  the  difference  in  protein  require- 
ment and  the  larger  amount  of  protein  in  the  various  feed- 
stuffs  as  shown  in  the  table. 

This  standard  as  modified  by  Savage  is  expressed  in  terms 
of  digestible  protein  and  total  nutriment.  The  term  "  total 
nut  <  inien  t  "  is  applied  to  the  sum  of  the  digestible  protein, 
the  digestible  carbohydrates,  arid  the  fat.  The  latter  is 
multiplied  by  2.25  to  convert  into  its  carbohydrate  equiva- 
lent .  The  maintenance  requirement  is  stated  for  each  100 
pounds  live  weight,  and  the  amount  necessary  for  the  animal 
in  (  uestion  is  then  found  by  calculation,  taking  the  weight 
of  1  he  animal  into  account. 

MAINTENANCE   REQUIREMENT 


DIGESTIBLE  PROTEIN 
POUNDS 

TOTAL  DIGESTIBLE 
NUTRIMENT,  POUNDS 

Per  100  Ib.  live  weight 

.070 

.79 

For  One  Pound  of  Milk 


PER  CENT  FAT 

DIGESTIBLE  PROTEIN 
POUNDS 

TOTAL  DIGESTIBLE 
NUTRIMENT,  POUNDS 

3.0 

.057 

.29 

3.5 

.061 

.32 

4.0 

.065 

.35 

4.5 

.069 

.38 

5.0 

.073 

.41 

5.5 

.077 

.43 

6.0 

.081 

.46 

6.5 

.085 

.49 

In  using  this  standard  the  same  plan  of  calculation  is 
followed  as  explained  for  the  Armsby  standard.     The  main- 


300 


APPENDIX 


tenance  requirement  is  first  calculated,  taking  into  account 
the  size  of  the  animal.  To  this  is  added  the  amount  neces- 
sary to  produce  the  milk,  taking  into  account  the  amount  and 
richness.  For  example,  let  it  be  assumed  the  problem  is  to 
calculate  the  ration  for  a  1150-pound  cow  producing  30 
pounds  of  4.5  per  cent  milk  daily.  According  to  the  pre- 
ceding statements  the  requirements  would  be  as  follows : 


DIGESTIBLE  PROTEIN 
POUNDS 

TOTAL  NUTRIMENT 

Maintenance  1150  Ib. 
30  Ib.  4.5%  milk  .     . 

(.070  X  11.5)     .81 
(30  x  .069)      2.07 

(.79  X  11.5)     9.09 
(30  X  38)        11.40 

Total 

2.88 

2049 

The  ration  to  be  fed  will  then  be  selected  and  calculated 
using  the  average  composition  of  feeds  as  given  in  Table  51, 
making  such  changes  and  modifications  as  are  seen  to  be 
necessary  in  order  to  bring  the  composition  of  the  ration 
reasonably  close  to  the  standard. 

TABLE    51.  —  DRY    MATTER,    DIGESTIBLE    PROTEIN    AND    TOTAL 
NUTRIMENT  PER  100  POUNDS  l 


TOTAL  DRY 
MATTER 

DIGESTIBLE 
PROTEIN 

TOTAL 

NUTRIMENT 

Concentrates. 

Corn                

89.4 

7.8 

84.3 

Swggt  Corn 

91  2 

8.8 

88.3 

Corn-and-cob  Meal      .     . 

84.9 

4.4 

70.9 

Gluten  Feed        .... 

90.8 

21.3 

80.6 

Gluten  Meal        .     . 

90.5 

29.7 

85.9 

Hominy  Feed  (chops) 

90.4 

6.8 

83.9 

Germ  Oil  Meal   .... 

91.4 

15.8 

78.8 

1  This  table  is  adapted  from  Henry's  "  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  10th  edition, 
p.  582, 


APPENDIX 


301 


TOTAL  DRY 

MATTER 


DIGESTIBLE 
PROTEIN 


TOTAL 
NUTRIMENT 


C<  >rn  Bran 90.6 

Wheat        89.5 

R.  'd-dog  Flour    ....  90.1 

W  heat  Middlings     .     .     .  88.8 

Wheat  Bran  .....  88.1, 

Re       ....'...  91.3 

R  ^e  Middlings    ....  88.2 

R  -e  Bran 88.4 

Barley 89.2 

O.-.ts 89.6 

Oatmeal 92.1 

O.  ,t  Middlings     ....  91.2 

O.-.t  Hulls 92.6 

B  ickwheat 86.6 

B  ickwheat  Middlings       .  87.2 

B  ickwheat  Hulls     .     .     .  86.8 

Rice. 87.6 

C;  ,nada  Field  Pea    .     .     .  85.0 

C'wpea 85.4 

Srybean 88.3 

Kafir  Corn 90.1 

Linseed  Meal      ....  90.2 

Cottonseed     .     ...     .     .  89.7 

Cottonseed  Meal     .     .     .  93.0 

Cottonseed  Hulls    .  88.9 


Factory  By-products. 
Dried  Brewers'  Grains 
Wet  Brewers'  Grains  . 
Malt  Sprouts  .  .  . 
Dried  Distillers'  Grain 
Wet  Beet  Pulp  .  .  . 
Dried  Beet  Pulp  .  . 
Sugar-beet  Molasses  . 

Silag;e. 

Corn 

Sorghum 

Red  Clover     .     .     .     . 

Soybean     

Cowpea  Vine       .     .     . 


91.3 

23. 

90.5 

92.4 

10.2 

91.6 

79.2 


26.4 
23.9 
28.0 

25.8 
20.7 


6. 

8.8 
16.2 
13. 
11.9 

9.5 
11. 
11.2 

8.4 
10.7 
11.9 
13.1 

1.3 

8.1 
22.7 

1.2 

6.4 
19.7 
16.8 
29.1 

5.2 

30.2 

12.5 

37.6 

.3 


20.0 

4.9 

20.3 

22.8 

.5 

4.1 

4.7 


1.4 
0.1 
1.5 
2.7 
1.5 


69.2 
79.7 
80.8 
68.8 
59.5 
81.6 
69.7 
62.0 
77.3 
69.5 
92.0 
85.4 
41.2 
61.7 
73.7 
30.9 
86.5 
69.9 
74.2 
85.2 
52.6 
77.7 
81.4 
80.6 
37.3 


65.7 
16.3 
69.4 

88.6 

8.2 

69.0 

58.8 


17.2 
14.1 
11.8 
15.2 
12.1 


302 


APPENDIX 


TOTAL  DRY 
MATTER 

DIGESTIBLE 
PROTEIN 

TOTAL 

NUTRIMENT 

Dried  Roughage. 
Fodder  Corn  with  Ears    . 
Corn  Stover,  Ears  removed 
Timothy    

57.8 
59.5 

86.8 

2.5 
1.4 

28 

39.8 
34.2 
48  1 

Orchard  Grass    .... 
Redtop 

90.1 
91  1 

4.9 

'48 

50.4 
539 

Kentucky  Bluegrass     .     . 
Bermuda  Grass       .     .     . 
Johnson  Grass    .... 
Barley 

86.0 
92.9 
89.8 
850 

4.4 
6.4 
2.9 
57 

46.2 
54.9 
50.3 
51  6 

Oat                       .... 

860 

47 

452 

Hungarian  Grass     .     .     . 
Prairie  Grass       .... 
Buffalo  Grass      .... 

Hay    from     Legumes    and 
Mixed     Legumes     and 
Grasses. 
Red  Clover 

86.0 
90.8 
85.0 

847 

5.0 
3.0 
3.0 

7  1 

54.4 
49.5 
48.6 

48  9 

Alsike  Clover      .... 
Crimson  Clover       .     .     . 
Sweet  Clover      .... 
Soybean    

90.3 
90.4 
92.1 

88.2 

8.4 
10.5 
11.9 
106 

50.6 
48.1 
49.7 
542 

Cowpea 

895 

13  1 

49  1 

Alfalfa  (western  U.  S.)     . 
Hairy  (winter)  Vetch 
Peanut  Vine        .... 
Oat  and  Pea       .... 
Mixed  Grasses  and  Clover 

Straw  and  Chaff. 
Wheat  

93.2 

88.7 
92.4 
89.5 
87.1 

904 

11.1 
11.9 
6.7 
7.6 

5.8 

8 

51.5 
56.2 
55.6 
52.4 
50.5 

369 

Rye 

92.9 

.7 

41  2 

Oat 

908 

1  3 

426 

Barley        

85.8 

9 

423 

Buckwheat 

90  1 

1  2 

397 

Fresh  Green  Roughage. 
Green  Corn  and  Sorghum- 
forage. 

APPENDIX 


303 


TOTAL  DRY 
MATTER 

DIGESTIBLE 
PROTEIN 

TOTAL 
NUTRIMENT 

Fo<  Ider,     Corn,     all 

Varieties 

20.7 

1.0 

13.8 

S\v  ^et  Varieties  .... 

20.9 

1.2 

14.7 

Fr<  sh  Green  Grasses    . 

Pa  ;ture  Grass      .... 

20.    • 

2.5 

13.7 

K<  itucky  Blue-grass  . 

34.9 

2.8 

24.2 

Tii  lothy    

38.4 

1.5 

22.7 

Or  hard  Grass     .... 

27.0 

1.2 

15.7 

R(  Itop  in  bloom 

34.7 

1.9 

24.3 

W!  eat  Forage     .... 

22.7 

1.7 

14.6 

R\  •-':  Forage 

23.4 

2.1 

17.1 

Oa    Forage,  in  Milk     .     . 

37.8 

2.5 

22.9 

Ba  -ley  Forage     .... 

21.0 

1.9 

12.9 

Jol  nson  Grass     .... 

25.0 

.6 

14.7 

Be  muda  Grass        .     .     . 

28.3 

1.3 

15.6 

Co  nmon  Millet       .     .     . 

20.0 

0.8 

12.3 

Fresl         Green       Legumes, 

Grasses    and   .Legumes 

(  Combined. 

Re.  1  Clover     

29.2 

2.9 

19.3 

Als  ke  Clover       .... 

25.2 

2.6 

15.1 

Cri  nson  Clover        .     .     . 

19.1 

2.4 

12.6 

Sweet  Clover       .... 

20.0 

2.5 

11.8 

Alf.ilfa        

28.2 

3.6 

16.6 

Cowpea      

16.4 

1.8 

11.0 

803  bean    

24.9 

3.1 

15.2 

Canada  Field-pea    .     .     . 

15.3 

1.8 

9.4 

Roots  and  Tubers. 

Potatoes 

20.9 

1.1 

17.0 

Common  Beet     .... 

11.5 

1.2 

9.3 

Mangel       

9.1 

1.0 

7.0 

Sugar  Beet     .... 

13.5 

1.3 

11.3 

Flat  Turnip 

9.9 

.9 

7.5 

Carrot  .                      . 

11.4 

.8 

9.2 

Ru  abao'a 

11.4 

1.0 

9.5 

Miscellaneous. 

Dwarf  Essex  Rape       .     . 

14.3 

2.0 

10.6 

Cabbage                               < 

10.0 

2.3 

8.4 

Field  Pumpkins       .     .     . 

9.1 

1.0 

7.3 

304 


APPENDIX 


WING'S  METHOD  OF  BALANCING  RATIONS 

A  short  method  of  balancing  rations  devised  by  H.  H. 
Wing  is  practical  and  convenient. 

He  divides  the  ordniary  grains  into  three  groups  :  low  pro- 
tein (less  than  12  per  cent) ;  medium  protein  (12  to  25  per 
cent) ;  high  protein  (over  25  per  cent).  The  figures  given 
in  the  table  are  for  the  total  and  not  the  digestible  protein. 

TABLE  52. — WING'S  METHOD  OF  BALANCING  RATIONS 


Low  PROTEIN  GROUP 
Total  Protein  12%  or  less 

MEDIUM  PROTEIN  GROUP 
Total  Protein  12%  to  25% 

HIGH  PROTEIN  GROUP 
Total  Protein  25%  or  more 

Corn  10.3 
Oats                                11  4 

Wheat  bran  .     .     .    15.4 
Mixed  wheat  feed      16  3 

Malt  sprouts    ....   26.3 
Linseed  oil  meal                  33  9 

Wheat    11.9 
Rye                            .   11  3 

Wheat  middlings     .    16.9 
Cottonseed  feed      .   20.0 

Cottonseed  meal  .     .     .   45.3 
Gluten  feed                           25  0 

Barley    12.0 
Buckwheat      .     .     .    10.8 

Buckwheat  feed      .    18.3 
Pea  meal  ....   20.2 

Brewers'  dried  grains     .   25.0 
Distillers'    dried    grains 
(corn)                                 31  2 

Hominy  chop       .     .    10.5 
Dried  beet  pulp        .     8.1 
Corn-and-cob  meal         8.5 

Cull  beans      .     .     .21.6 

Buckwheat  middlings    .   26.7 

Mixed  hay,  corn  silage,  and  corn  fodder  are  very  similar 
in  composition  as  far  as  the  relation  between  the  protein  and 
carbohydrates  is  concerned.  When  roughage  of  this  class 
is  used,  a  grain  mixture  made  by  mixing  equal  parts  by 
weight  of  one  from  each  of  the  three  groups  will  make  a  well- 
balanced  ration.  A  dairy  cow  in  full  flow  of  milk  should 
receive  all  the  hay  and  silage  she  will  eat  and  the  grain  mix- 
ture at  the  rate  of  one  pound  for  each  3  or  3£  pounds  of 
milk  that  she  produces,  if  this  milk  be  about  the  average 
composition  of  4,  percent.  If  the  milk  contains  3  to  3.5 
percent  fat,  1  pound  grain  to  4  pounds  of  milk  is  sufficient. 
If  alfalfa  hay  is  used  the  high  protein  feed  is  not  necessary. 


APPENDIX 


305 


TAI.LE  53.  — AVERAGE  WEIGHTS  OF  DIFFERENT  FEEDING-STUFFS 


FEEDING  STUFF 


Pounds 

Barley  meal 1.1 

Barley,  whole 1.5 

Bre\vers'  dried  grains •          0.6 

Coru-and-cob  meal 1.4 

Coi  n-and-oat  feed 0.7 

Coi  n  bran 0.5 

Corn,  meal 1.5 

Corn,  whole 1.7 

Col  tonseed  meal 1.5 

Distillers'  grains,  dried      ....  0.5-0.7 

Germ,  oil  meal 1.4 

Glu  ten  feed 1.3 

Gluten  meal 1.7 

Hoi  liny  meal 1.1 

Linseed  meal,  new  process     .     .     .  0.9 

Lin  eed  meal,  old  process       ...  1.1 

Malt  sprouts 0.6 

Oat  ^  ground 0.7 

Oat;,  whole 1.0 

Rye  bran 0.6 

Rye  meal 1.5 

Rye,  whole 1.7 

Wh(  at  bran     .  - 0.5 

Wheat,  ground          1.7 

Wheat  middlings  (flour)    ....  1.2 

Wht  at  middlings  (standard) ...  0.8 

Wheat,  whole  2.0 


ONE  QUART 
WEIGHS 


ONE  POUND 
MEASURES 


Quarts 

0.9 
0.7 
1.7 
0.7 
1.4 
2.0 
0.7 
0.6 
0.7 

1.0-1.4 
0.7 
0.8 
0.6 
0.9 
1.1 
0.9 
1.7 
1.4 
1.0 
1.8 
0.7 
0.6 
2.0 
0.6 
0.8 
1.3 
0.5 


RULES  FOR  MEASURING  FEED 

Measuring  Grain.  A  bushel  of  grain  contains  approxi- 
mately f  cubic  feet.  To  find  the  capacity  of  a  bin,  find  the 
number  of  cubic  feet  and  multiply  by  -f,  or  multiply  by  8 
and  divide  by  10. 

Measuring  Ear  Corn.  Two  bushels  of  ears  are  ordinarily 
required  to  make  one  bushel  of  grain.  To  find  the  capacity 

1  U.  S.  'Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  222. 


306 


APPENDIX 


of  a  crib,  find  the  number  of  cubic  feet  and  multiply  by  f,  or 
multiply  by  4  and  divide  by  10.  Seventy  pounds  of  ear 
corn  is  ordinarily  called  a  bushel. 

Measuring  Straw.  Few  weights  of  straw  have  been  re- 
ported. The  writer  measured  and  weighed  two  barns  full 
of  settled  wheat  straw.  The  mows  were  14  feet  deep,  1200 
cubic  feet  were  required  for  one  ton. 

Measuring  Hay.  Some  kinds  of  hay  are  heavier  than 
others.  The  deeper  the  mow  or  stack  and  the  longer  it  has 
stood,  the  heavier  the  hay  is  per  cubic  foot.  Of  course  the 
bottom  of  a  mow  is  much  heavier  than  the  top.  Usually 
about  500  cubic  feet  of  settled  hay  are  counted  as  one  ton. 

A  barn  30  X  60  feet  and  16  feet  from  floor  to  top  of  the 
plate,  and  having  the  peak  9  feet  above  the  plate,  was  filled 
as  full  as  possible  with  timothy  hay  and  refilled  after  a  few 
days.  This  hay  was  baled  by  the  writer  about  five  months 
later.  It  weighed  51^  tons.  On  another  year  it  weighed 
51  tons.  A  barn  30  X  42  feet  and  16  feet  from  floor  to  top 
of  plate,  with  peak  9  feet  above  the  plate,  was  similarly  filled, 
and  baled  out  32.75  tons. 

Capacity  of  Silos.  King  gives  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot 
of  silage  at  different  depths  two  days  after  filling,  as  follows  : 1 


DEPTH 

WEIGHT  PER  CUBIC 
FOOT 

AVERAGE  WEIGHT  TO  THIS 
DEPTH 

Feet 
1 

Pounds 

19 

Pounds 

19 

10 

33 

26 

20 

46 

33 

30 

56 

40 

36 

61 

43 

Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  59. 


INDEX 


Abi  rdeen-Angus,    37. 
Ab<  rtion,  155. 
Ad   anced  registry,  64,  133. 
A£<   and  production,  66. 
Alf.-.lfa,  106,  224. 
Aii;:nal  unit,  defined,  218. 

;i  >res  per,  278. 
Asl  ,  95. 
As.-  >ciations,  breeders,  289. 

c  >w-testing,  61. 
Ay,'  shire,  27. 

no.  registered,  17. 

Ba!  cock  milk  test,  58,  196. 
Bal  meed  rations,  97,   131,  298, 
Bai  as,  82,  139. 

c<  ,sts  of,  147,  266. 
Bee',  breeds,  37. 

fiom  dairy  cattle,  5,  20. 
Bee;  pulp  and  molasses,  109. 
Biti  er  milk,  88. 
Blarkleg,  163. 
Bloot,  162. 
Blo(  .dy  milk,  87. 
Breeders'  associations,  289. 
Breeds,  beef,  14,  37. 

classification  of,  14. 

dairy,  14. 

dual  purpose,  14,  31. 

milk  of  various,  173. 

origin  of,  12. 

production  of  various,  42,  66. 

selection  of,  40. 
Brewers'  grains,  109. 
Brown  Swiss,  30. 
Bull,  management  of,  91. 

selection  of,  69. 
Butter,  ash  in,  2. 

compared  with  beef,  2. 

energy  in,  2. 

imports  and  exports,  296. 

legal  standards,  297. 

making,  182. 


304. 


.prices  by  months,  217. 

production  per  capita,  4. 

protein  in,  2. 

regions  of  production,  209. 

season  of  production,  215. 
Butter-fat,  59,  196. 

factors  affecting  amount  of,  172. 
Buttermilk,  composition  of,  298. 

Calf  raising,  112. 

scours,  160. 
Calving,  care  at,  90. 
Canada  pea,  106. 

Capital  and  amount  of  stock,  277. 
Cattle,  origin  of,  12. 
Centralizer,  192. 
Certified  milk,  181. 
Cheese,  ash  in,  2. 

compared  with  beef,  2. 

energy  in,  2. 

imports  and  exports,  296. 

legal  standards,  297. 

making,  192. 

production  per  capita,  4. 

protein  in,  2. 

regions  of  production,  209,  211. 

season  of  production,  215,  216. 
Churning,  187. 
Climate,  203,  215. 
Clover,  106,  224. 
Condensed  milk,  193. 

imports  and  exports,  296. 
Condimental  feeds,  111. 
Corn,  107. 

silage,  107,  221. 

stover,  106. 

Corn-stalk  disease,  165. 
Costs  of  production,  246. 
Cottonseed  meal,  108. 
Cows,  compared  with  other  animals, 
7. 

numbers  of,  6. 

size  of,  271. 


307 


308 


INDEX 


Cowpea,  106,  224. 
Cowpox,  162. 

cow-testing  associations,  61. 
Cream,  imports  and  exports,  296. 

legal  standards,  297. 

separation,  185. 

weight  of,  298. 
Creameries,  191. 
Crimson  clover,  106. 
Crop  rotations,  225. 

yields,  274. 

acres  per  horse,  264. 

acres  per  man,  261. 

cash,  227,  276. 
Cropping  systems,  225. 
Crossbreeding,  13,  74. 
Crude  fiber,  95. 

Dairy  products,  receipts  from,  10. 

Dehorning,  81. 

Devon,  36. 

Diversified  farming,  227,  276,  279. 

Drenching  a  cow,  152. 

Drying  up  a  cow,  89,  124. 

Dual  purpose,  14,  31. 

Dutch  Belted,  30. 

Ether  extract,  95. 

Feeding  standards,  97,  298,  304. 
Feeds,  104,  300,  304,  305. 

condimental,  111. 

costs  of,  246. 

digestibility,  96. 

effect  on  milk,  176. 

energy  in,  104. 

mixed,  110. 

production  values  of,  96. 

returned  in  manure,  231. 

uses  of,  94. 

weights  of,  305. 

Fertility  of  feed  in  manure,  231. 
Flies,  79. 
Floors  of  barns,  141. 

Galloway,  38. 
Garget,  158. 
Gluten,  109. 
Grade,  defined,  13. 
Guernsey,  24. 

no.  registered,  17. 


Gutters,  144. 

Haecker  feeding  standard,  298. 
Hay,  weight  of,  306. 
Heifers,  feeding,  120. 
cost  of  raising,  250. 
Hereford,  37. 
Holstein,  17. 

Ice  cream,  legal  standards,  297. 
Inflammation  of  the  udder,  158. 

Jersey,  21. 

number  registered,  17. 

Kaffir  poisoning,  164. 
Kerry,  30. 
Kicking  cows,  88. 

Labor  costs,  246,  248. 
Labor  income,  259. 
Legal  standards,  297. 
Legumes,  106,  224. 
Lice,  161. 

Light  for  barns,  140. 
Linseed  meal,  109. 

Maintenance  requirements,  299. 
Mangers,  144. 
Manure,  9,  230. 

amount  produced,  230. 

application  of,  235. 

losses  of,  232. 

value  of,  231,  234. 
Marketing,  253. 
Marking  cattle,  82. 
Meat  from  dairy  cattle,  5,  20. 
Milk,  ash  in,  2. 

bitter,  88. 

certified,  181. 

color  of,  171. 

compared  with  beef,  2. 

composition  of,  168. 

condensed,  193. 

consumed  per  capita,  4. 

cost  of,  246. 

energy  in,  2. 

fever,  153. 

flour,  194. 

from  different  animals,  172. 

inspection,  5. 


INDEX 


309 


lejral  standards,  297. 

prices  by  months,  217. 

rec  ords,  58. 

sanitary,  177. 

substitutes,  117. 

su-ar,  170. 

te-ting,  59,  196. 

va  ue  as  food,  1. 

ve;ns,  51. 

w(  ight  of,  298. 

wells,  51. 
Mill-  ing,  methods  of,  83,  84. 

rn  ichines,  86. 
Mix.  d  feeds,  110. 
Mol  sses,  109. 

Niti  >gen-free  extract,  95. 

Oat>.  108. 
Oil  i  leal,  109. 

Pasi  are,  126,  224. 

feeding  grain  on,  127. 
Pedigrees,  15. 

Poll  d  Durham,  34. 

Population  of  the  United  States,  3. 

Pro( Auction  values  of  feeds,  96. 

Prof  ts,  factors  affecting,  258. 

Prolein,  95. 

Pul-o,  normal,  150. 

Pun  bred,  defined,  13. 

Rations,  calculating,   100. 
Red  Polled,  34. 
Registry,   advanced,   64. 

number  of  animals  in,  17. 
Renting  dairy  farms,  240. 
Respiration,  normal,  151. 
Rotations,  crop,  225. 

Salt,  123. 

Sanitary  milk,  177. 

Score  cards,  53,  77,  290. 

Scours,  160. 

Selection,  individual,  42. 

of  a  breed,  40. 

of  a  bull,  69. 


Shelter,  82. 
Shorthorn,  32. 
Silage,  107,  221. 
Silo,  capacity  of,  306. 
Skim-milk,  composition  of,  298. 

for  calves,  112. 

value  as  food,  2,  254. 
Soiling  crops,  223. 
Soils  for  dairying,  274. 
Sorghum  poisoning,  164. 
Stalls,  144. 
Stanchions,  145. 
Straw,  weight  of,  306. 
Strippings,  176. 
Successful  farms,  242,  281. 
Succulent  feed,  132. 

Teats,  chapped,  88. 

leaky,  87. 

Temperature,  normal,  151. 
Tenure  of  dairy  farms,  240. 
Ties,  145. 
Timothy  hay,  106. 
Topography,  203. 
Transportation  and  dairying,  208. 
Tuberculosis,  156. 

Udder,  50. 

inflammation  of,  158. 

Variations,  extent  of,  44. 
Veal  production,  119. 
Ventilation,  146. 
Vetch,  106,  224. 

Water  for  cows,  125. 

in  feed,  95. 
Weights  of  feeds,  305. 
Wheat  bran,  107. 

middlings,  108. 
Whey,  298. 

Wing's  feeding  standard,  304. 
Wolff-Lehmann      feeding     standard, 

99. 
Work  units,  263. 


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few  of  the  Macmillan  books  on  kindred  subjects 


Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools 


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Written  by  Professor  G.  F.  Warren,  who  is  in  charge  of  the  Department  of 
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Professor  Warren  is,  moreover,  a  farmer.  He  grew  up  on  a  farm  in  the  mid- 
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In  Warren's  "  Elements  of  Agriculture  "  there  is  no  waste  space.  It  is  writ- 
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Field  Crop  Production 

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rice,  buckwheat,  perennial  grasses,  annual  grasses,  clovers, 
alialfa,  root  crops,  fibre  crops,  etc.  There  is  a  chapter 
abo  on  marketing  grain. 

The  book  is  simple  and  non-technical  in  style  and  in- 
tensely practical,  the  topics  treated  being  those  of  immedi- 
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farm  crops,  of  selecting  the  field,  of  preparing  the  soil,  of 
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prevent  smut  in  the  corn  crops,  and  about  reseeding  old 
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Principles  of  Agronomy 

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The  "Principles  of  Agronomy"  deals  with  the  practices 
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comed by  those  schools  that  emphasize,  in  the  agriculture 
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plant  and  its  activities ;  then,  the  composition  of  soils ; 
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principles  of  farm  management.  When  one  has  surveyed 
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ment as  well  as  by  the  crops  themselves. 

The  book  will  appeal  to  the  practical  man  whether  he 
be  student  or  farmer.  It  deals  with  conditions  as  they 
are,  and  discusses  practical  problems  that  involve  both 
principles  and  applications : 

What  shading-  does  to  plants;  How  to  modify  soils ; 
When  to  irrigate ;  How  to  prevent  potato  diseases ;  etc. 

The  book  is  comprehensive  and  well  organized.  It  is, 
moreover,  well  written  and  attractively  illustrated.  It  is  a 
good  story  well  told. 

Lists  of  supplementary  readings,  provided  at  the  ends 
of  chapters,  permit  of  extension  of  the  course  into  any 
field  of  special  local  interest.  The  appendix  contains  ref- 
erence material,  tables,  rules,  glossary,  etc. 


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DEC  14  1932 
DEC  15  1932 


1934 


28  1938 


SEP    8 

ISApr 


AUG 


1936 


MAR  16  1938 


1838 


/ 


REC'D  LD 
APR1319S8 


•32 


362172 


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